Parkinson's disease: A review

Goldman SM, Tanner C. Etiology of Parkinson's's disease. In: Jankovic J, Tolosa E, editors. Parkinson's's disease and movement disorders, 3rd ed. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott-Williams and Wilkins; 1998. p. 133-58.

Schrag A, Schott JM. Epidemiological, clinical, and genetic characteristics of early-onset Parkinson'sism, Lancet Neurol 2006; 5:355-63.

Baldereschi M, Di Carlo A, Rocca, WA, Vanni P, Maggi S, Perissinotto E, et al. Parkinson's disease and Parkinsonism in a longitudinal study: Two-fold higher incidence in men. ILSA Working Group. Italian Longitudinal Study on Aging. Neurology 2000;55. 1358-63.

Van, 2003, Am J Epidemiol, Incidence of Parkinson's disease: Variation by age, gender, and race/ethnicity, 1015

Razdan, 1994, Neuroepidemiology, Prevalence and pattern of major neurological disorders in rural Kashmir (India) in 1986, 113

Gourie Devi M, Gururaj P, Satishchandra P. Bangalore urban and rural neurological survey. Report submitted to the Indian Council of Medical Research;1995.

Das, 1996, Neurol India, Neuroepidemiology of major neurological disorders in rural Bengal, 47

Bharucha, 1988, Arch Neurol, Prevalence of Parkinson's's disease in the Parsi community of Bombay, India, 1321

Warner, 2003, Ann Neurol, Genetic and environmental factors in the cause of Parkinson's disease, S16

Cookson, 2005, Curr Opin Neurol, How genetics research in Parkinson's disease is enhancing understanding of the common idiopathic forms of the disease, 706

Marder, 2010, Arch Neurol, Predictors of Parkin mutations in early onset parkinson's disease: The CORE-PD Study, 731

Alcalay, 2010, Arch Neurol, Frequency of known mutations in early onset PD;Implication for genetic counseling: The CORE-PD study, 1116

Lesage, 2009, Hum Mol Genet, Parkinson's disease: From monogenic forms to genetic susceptibility factors, R48

Das, 2013, Neurol India, Movement disorders: Indian scenario: A clinico-genetic review, 457

Madegowda, 2005, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, Mutational screening of the Parkin gene among South Indians with early onset Parkinson's disease, 1588

Chaudhary, 2006, Parkinsonism Relat Disord, Parkin mutations in familial and sporadic Parkinson's disease among Indians, 239

Biswas, 2006, Parkinsonism Relat Disord, Molecular pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease: Identification of mutations in the Parkin gene in Indian patients, 420

Vinish, 2010, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, Genetic screening reveals high frequency of PARK2 mutations and reduced Parkin expression conferring risk for Parkinsonism in North West India, 166

Padmaja, 2012, Neurosci Lett, PARK2 gene mutations in early onset Parkinson's disease patients of South India, 145

Abbas, 2016, Parkinsonism Relat Disord, Early onset Parkinson's disease due to DJ1 mutations: An Indian study, 20

Sanyal, 2011, Neurol Res, Evaluating intra-genetic variants of DJ-1 among Parkinson's disease patients of Eastern India, 349

Sadhukhan, 2012, , DJ-1 variants in Indian Parkinson's disease patients.Dis Markers, 127

Gilks, 2005, Lancet, A common LRRK2 mutation in idiopathic Parkinson's disease, 415

Padmaja, 2012, Parkinsonism Relat Disord, The SNCA (A53T, A30P, and E46K) and LRRK2 (G2019S) mutations are rare causes of Parkinson's disease in South Indian patients, 801

Vijayan, 2011, Neurol India, LRRK2 G2019S mutation does not contribute to Parkinson's disease in South India, 157

Sanyal, 2010, Genet Test Mol Biomarkers, Absence of commonly reported leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 mutations in Eastern Indian Parkinson's disease patients, 691

Punia, 2006, Neurosci Lett, Absence/rarity of commonly reported LRRK2 mutations in Indian Parkinson's's disease patients, 83

Sadhukhan, 2012, , Evaluation of the role of LRRK2 gene in Parkinson's disease in an East Indian cohort.Dis Markers, 355

Paisan-Ruiz, 2009, Hum Mutat, LRRK2 gene variation and its contribution to Parkinson's disease, 1153

Nagar, 2001, Acta Neurol Scand, Mutations in the alpha-synuclein gene in Parkinson's disease among Indians, 120

Kadakol, 2014, Neurol India, Molecular analysis of α-synuclein gene in Parkinson's disease in North Karnataka, India, 149

Schapira, 2008, Lancet Neurol, Mitochondria in the aetiology and pathogenesis of Parkinson's's disease, 97

Biswas, 2010, Parkinsonism Relat Disord, Evaluation of PINK1 variants in Indian Parkinson's's disease patients, 167

Tamali, 2015, Neurosci Lett, Novel P-TEN-induced putative kinase 1 (PINK1) variant in Indian Parkinson's disease patient, 29

Sudhaman, 2016, J Med Genet, Discovery of a frameshift mutation in podocalyxin- like (PODXL) gene, coding for a neural adhesion molecule, as causal for autosomal-recessive juvenile Parkinsonism, 450

Dickson, 2009, Lancet Neurol, Neuropathological assessment of Parkinson's disease: Refining the diagnostic criteria, 1150

Goedert, 2012, Nat Rev Neurol, 100 years of Lewy pathology, 13

Postuma, 2009, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, Clinical prediction of Parkinson's disease: Planning for the age of neuroprotection, 1008

Halliday,, 2010, Ann NY Acad Sci, The progression of pathology in Parkinson's disease, 188

Dijkstra, AA, Voorn P, Berendse HW, Dijkstra AA, Voorn P, Berendse HW, Groenewegen HJ;Netherlands Brain Bank, Rozemuller AJ, van de Berg WD. Stage-dependent nigral neuronal loss in incidental Lewy body and Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 2014;29:1244-51. Stage-dependent nigral neuronal loss in incidental Lewy body and Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 2014;29:1244-51.

Damier P, Hirsch EC, Agid Y, Graybiel AM. The substantia nigra of the human brain. II. Patterns of loss of dopamine-containing neurons in Parkinson's disease. Brain 1999;122:1437-48.

Fearnley, 1991, Brain, Ageing and Parkinson's disease: Substantia nigra regional selectivity, 2283

Alexander, 1986, Annu Rev Neurosci, Parallel organization of functionally segregated circuits linking basal ganglia and cortex, 357

Alexander, 1990, Prog Brain Res, Basal ganglia-thalamocortical circuits: Parallel substrates for motor, oculomotor, “prefrontal” and “limbic” functions, 119

Dirkx, 2016, J Neurosci, The cerebral network of Parkinson's tremor: An effective connectivity fMRI Study, 5362

Windels, 2015, Brain, Where and what is the PPN and what is its role in locomotion?, 1133

Mulak, 2015, World J Gastroenterol, Brain-gut-microbiota axis in Parkinson's disease, 10609

Sampson, 2016, , Gut microbiota regulate motor deficits and neuroinflammation in a model of Parkinson's disease.Cell, 1469

Scheperjans, 2015, Mov Disord, Gut microbiota are related to Parkinson's disease and clinical phenotype, 350

Keshavarzian, 2015, Mov Disord, Colonic bacterial composition in Parkinson's disease, 1351

Unger, 2016, Parkinsonism Relat Disord, Short chain fatty acids and gut microbiota differ between patients with Parkinson's disease and age-matched controls, 66

Hasegawa S, Goto S, Tsuji H, Okuno T, Asahara T, Nomoto K, et al. Intestinal dysbiosis and lowered serum lipopolysaccharide-binding protein in Parkinson's's disease. PLoS ONE 2015;10:e0142164. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone. 0142164. [Last accessed on 2018 Jan 22].

Hill-Burns, 2017, Mov Disord, Parkinson's disease and Parkinson's disease medications have distinct signatures of the gut microbiome, 739

Hughes, 1992, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, Accuracy of clinical diagnosis of idiopathic Parkinson's disease.A clinico-pathological study of 100 cases, 181

Chaudhuri, 2009, Lancet Neurol, Non-motor symptoms of Parkinson's's disease: Dopaminergic pathophysiology and treatment, 464, 10.1093/med/9780199237234.001.0001

Hely, 2008, Mov Disord, The Sydney multicenter study of Parkinson's's disease: The inevitability of dementia at 20 years, 837

Jankovic J, McDermott M, Carter J, Gauthier S, Goetz C, Golbe L, et al. Variable expression of Parkinson's disease: A base-line analysis of the DATATOP cohort. The Parkinson's Study Group. Neurology 1990;40, 1529-34.

Lim, 2010, Mov Disord, The nonmotor symptoms of Parkinson's disease-An overview, S123

Noyce, 2012, Ann Neurol, Meta-analysis of early nonmotor features and risk factors for Parkinson's disease, 893

Salat, 2016, Lancet Neurol, Challenges of modifying disease progression in pre-diagnostic Parkinson's disease, 637

Postuma, 2012, Mov Disord, Identifying prodromal Parkinson's disease: Pre-motor disorders in Parkinson's disease, 617

Lohle, 2009, J Neural Transm (Vienna), Beyond tremor and rigidity: Non-motor features of Parkinson's Disease, 1483

Aarsland, 2008, Curr Op Neurol, Dementia in Parkinson's disease, 676

Xiao, 2014, Neurosci Bull, Hyposmia: A possible biomarker of Parkinson's's disease, 134

Rizzo, 2016, Neurology, Accuracy of clinical diagnosis of Parkinson's disease: A systematic review and meta- analysis, 566

Stoessl, 2014, Lancet, Imaging insights into basal ganglia function, Parkinson's disease, and dystonia, 532

Politis, 2014, Nat Rev Neurol, Neuroimaging in Parkinson's disease: From research setting to clinical practice, 708

Ibrahim, 2016, Am J Nucl Med Mol Imaging, The sensitivity and specificity of F-DOPA PET in a movement disorder clinic, 102

Ishikawa, 1996, J Nucl Med, Comparative nigrostriatal dopaminergic imaging with iodine-123-beta CIT- FP/SPECT and fluorine-18-FDOPA/PET, 1760

Eshuis, 2006, Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging, Comparison of FP-CIT SPECT with F-DOPA PET in patients with de novo and advanced Parkinson's's disease, 200

Eshuis, 2009, Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging, Direct comparison of FP-CIT SPECT and F-DOPA PET in patients with Parkinson's disease and healthy controls, 454

Lehéricy, 2012, Mov Disord, Magnetic resonance imaging of the substantia nigra in Parkinson's's disease, 822

Mahlknecht, 2010, Neurodegener Dis, Significance of MRI in diagnosis and differential diagnosis of Parkinson's disease, 300

Treglia G, Cason E, Stefanelli A, Cocciolillo F, Di Giuda D, Fagioli G, et al. MIBG scintigraphy in differential diagnosis of Parkinsonism: A meta-analysis. Clin Auton Res 2012;22, 43-55.

Chen-Plotkin, 2014, Neuron, Unbiased approaches to biomarker discovery in neurodegenerative diseases, 594

Swanson, 2015, Mov Disord, Plasma ApoA1 associates with age at onset and motor severity in early Parkinson's disease patients, 1648

Schapira, 2013, Curr Opin Neurol, Recent developments in biomarkers in Parkinson's disease, 395

Miyasaki, 2002, Neurology, Practice parameter: Initiation of treatment for Parkinson's disease: An evidence-based review: Report of the quality standards subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology, 11

Antonini, 2010, Funct Neurol, Rotigotine transdermal patch in the management of Parkinson's disease (PD) and its night-time use for PD-related sleep disorders, 21

Fernandez, 2013, Parkinsonism Relat Disord, Levodopa-carbidopa intestinal gel in advanced Parkinson's disease open-label study: Interim results, 339

Olanow, 2014, Lancet Neurol, Continuous intrajejunal infusion of levodopa-carbidopa intestinal gel for patients with advanced Parkinson's disease: A randomised, controlled, double-blind, double-dummy study, 141

Poewe, 2015, Mov Disord, , Antonini A.Novel formulations and modes of delivery of levodopa, 114

Fox, 2011, Mov Disord, The Movement Disorder Society evidence-based medicine review update: Treatments for the motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease, S2

Connolly, 2014, JAMA, Pharmacological treatment of Parkinson's disease: A review, 1670

LeWitt, 2016, Neurology, Levodopa therapy for Parkinson's disease: A look backward and forward, S3

Olanow, 2006, Lancet Neurol, Continuous dopamine-receptor treatment of Parkinson's disease: Scientific rationale and clinical implications, 677

Cenci, 2014, Front Neurol, Presynaptic mechanisms of l-DOPA- induced dyskinesia: The findings, the debate, and the therapeutic implications, 242

Hauser, 2011, Mov Disord, Crossover comparison of IPX066 and a standard levodopa formulation in advanced Parkinson's disease, 2246

Hauser, 2013, Lancet Neurol, Extended-release carbidopa-levodopa (IPX066) compared with immediate-release carbidopa-levodopa in patients with Parkinson's disease and motor fluctuations: A phase 3 randomised, double-blind trial, 346

Pahwa, 2014, Parkinsonism Relat Disord, Randomized trial of IPX066, carbidopa/levodopa extended release, in early Parkinson's disease, 142

Stocchi, 2014, Parkinsonism Relat Disord, Comparison of IPX066 with carbidopa-levodopa plus entacapone in advanced PD patients, 1335

Waters, 2015, CNS Drugs, Long-term treatment with extended-release carbidopa-levodopa (IPX066) in early and advanced Parkinson's disease: A 9-month open-label extension trial, 341

Dhall, 2016, Neurology, Advances in levodopa therapy for Parkinson's disease: Review of RYTARY (carbidopa and levodopa) clinical efficacy and safety, S13

Fernandez, 2015, Mov Disord, Levodopa-carbidopa intestinal gel in advanced Parkinson's disease: Final 12-month, open-label results, 500

LeWitt, 2012, Mov Disord, Accordion pill carbidopa/levodopa for improved treatment of advanced Parkinson's disease symptoms, S408

LeWitt P, Friedman H, Giladi N. Sustained-release carbidopa-levodopa (accordian pill) in patients with advanced Parkinson's disease: Pharmacokinetic and clinical experience. Mov Disord 2013;28(Suppl. 1):S499.

LeWitt PA, Giladi N, Gurevich T. Accordion pill carbidopa/levodopa (AP-CD/LD) for treatment of advanced Parkinson's disease (PD). Mov Disord. 2014;29(Suppl. 1):S668.

Caraco Y, Oren S, LeWitt P. Constant therapeutic levodopa (LD) plasma concentrations maintained by continuous subcutaneous (SC) administration of ND-0612, a novel formulation of LD/carbidopa (CD). Mov Disord 2013;28(Suppl. 1):S452.

Giladi N, Caraco Y, Gurevich T, Djaldetti R. Pharmacokinetics and safety of ND0612L (levodopa/carbidopa for subcutaneous infusion): Results from a phase II study in moderate to severe Parkinson's disease. Neurology 2015;84(Suppl. P1):187.

Muller, 2013, Mov Disord, Novel levodopa product ODM-101 vs levodopa/carbidopa/entacapone in Parkinson's disease with response fluctuations, S146

Lewitt, 2016, Mov Disord, A randomized trial of inhaled levodopa (CVT-301) for motor fluctuations in Parkinson's disease, 1356

Luinstra, 2015, Eur J Pharm and Biopharm, A levodopa dry powder inhaler for the treatment of Parkinson's disease patients in off periods, 22

PD, 2014, Lancet, Long-term effectiveness of dopamine agonists and monoamine oxidase B inhibitors compared with levodopa as initial treatment for Parkinson's disease (PD MED): A large, open-label, pragmatic randomised trial, 1196

Lang, 2014, Lancet, Initiating dopaminergic treatment in Parkinson's disease, 1164

Jankovic, 2012, Neurol, Therapies in Parkinson's disease.Curr Opin, 433

Frankel, 1990, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, Subcutaneous apomorphine in the treatment of Parkinson's disease, 96

Katzenschlager, 2005, Mov Disord, Continuous subcutaneous apomorphine therapy improves dyskinesias in Parkinson's disease: A prospective study using single-dose challenges, 151

Birkmayer, 1977, Lancet, Implications of combined treatment with 'Madopar' and L-deprenil in Parkinson's disease.A long-term study, 439

Palhagen, 2008, , Use of selegiline as monotherapy and in combination with levodopa in the management of Parkinson's disease: Perspectives from the MONOCOMB study.Progress in Neurotherapeutics and Neuropsychopharmacology, 49

Mizuno, 2017, Clin Neuropharmacol, A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled phase iii trial of selegiline monotherapy for early Parkinson's disease, 201

Cereda, 2017, J Neurol, Efficacy of rasagiline and selegiline in Parkinson's disease: A head-to-head 3-year retrospective case-control study, 1254

deSouza, 2017, Expert Opin Pharmaco, Safinamide for the treatment of Parkinson's disease, 937

Schapira, 2017, JAMA Neurol, Assessment of safety and efficacy of safinamide as a levodopa adjunct in patients with Parkinson's disease and motor fluctuations: A randomized clinical trial, 216

Muller, 2015, Drugs, Catechol-O-methyltransferase inhibitors in Parkinson's disease, 157

Bonifácio, 2007, CNS Drug Reviews, Catechol-O-methyltransferase and its inhibitors in Parkinson's disease, 352

Learmonth, 2002, J Med Chem, Synthesis of 1-(3,4-dihydroxy-5-nitrophenyl)-2-phenyl-ethanone and derivatives as potent and long-acting peripheral inhibitors of catechol-O-methyltransferase, 685

Rodrigues, 2017, Expert Opin Pharmacother, Opicapone for the treatment of Parkinson's disease, 445

Kalia, 2013, Mov Disord, Novel nondopaminergic targets for motor features of Parkinson's's disease: Review of recent trials, 131

Yarnall, 2011, Mov Disord, The interplay of cholinergic function, attention, and falls in Parkinson's's disease, 2496

Chung, 2010, Neurology, Effects of a central cholinesterase inhibitor on reducing falls in Parkinson's disease, 1263

Emre, 2004, N Engl J Med, Rivastigmine for dementia associated with Parkinson's disease, 2509

Henderson, 2013, BMC Neurol, The respond trial—rivastigmine to stabilise gait in Parkinson's's disease a phase II, randomised, double blind, placebo controlled trial to evaluate the effect of rivastigmine on gait in patients with Parkinson's disease who have fallen, 188

Seppi,, 2011, Mov Disord, The Movement Disorder Society evidence-based medicine review update: Treatments for the non-motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease, S42

Connolly, 2014, Neurotherapeutics, Treatment of cognitive, psychiatric, and affective disorders associated with Parkinson's disease, 78

Cummings, 2014, Lancet, Pimavanserin for patients with Parkinson's disease psychosis: A randomised, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial, 533

Pahwa, 2006, Neurology, Practice parameter: Treatment of Parkinson's disease with motor fluctuations and dyskinesia (an evidence-based review): Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology, 983

Oertel, 2017, Move Disord, Randomized, placebo-controlled trial of ADS-5102 (amantadine) extended-release capsules for levodopa-induced dyskinesia in Parkinson's disease (EASE LID 3), 1701

Perez-Lloret, 2013, Expert Opin Emerg Drugs, Emerging drugs for autonomic dysfunction in Parkinson's disease, 39

Karuppagounder, 2014, Sci Rep, The c-Abl inhibitor, nilotinib, protects dopaminergic neurons in a preclinical animal model of Parkinson's disease, 4874

Imam, 2013, PLoS one, Neuroprotective efficacy of a new brain-penetrating C-Abl inhibitor in a murine Parkinson's disease model, e65129

Zhou,, 2017, Neurol Sci, The c-Abl inhibitor in Parkinson's disease, 547

Kalia, 2013, Curr Opin Neurol, Deep brain stimulation for Parkinson's disease and other movement disorders, 374

Schuepbach, 2013, N Engl J Med, Neurostimulation for Parkinson's disease with early motor complications, 610

Manjunath M, Yadav R, Dwarakanath S, Jhunjhunwala K, Jafar A, Surathi P, Lenka A, Stezin A, Sampath S, Pal PK. Experience of pallidal deep brain stimulation in dystonia at a tertiary care centre in India: An initial experience. Neurol India 2017;65:1322-9

Pandey S. When to do deep brain stimulation surgery in Parkinson disease? Early or late?. Neurol India 2016;64:8-9.

Bronstein, 2011, Arch Neurol, Deep brain stimulation for Parkinson's disease: An expert consensus and review of key issues, 165

Deuschl, 2013, Lancet Neurol, Subthalamic neurostimulation for Parkinson's disease with early fluctuations: Balancing the risks and benefits, 1025

Pandey, 2015, Neurol India, Deep brain stimulation: Current status, 9

Levine CB, Fahrbach KR, Siderowf AD, Estok RP, Ludensky VM, Ross SD, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of Parkinson's disease: A systematic review of the literature: Summary. 2003 May. In: AHRQ Evidence Report Summaries. Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US);1998-2005. 57. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11895. [Last accessed on 2018 Jan 22].

Voges, 2007, Mov Disord, Thirty days complication rate following surgery performed for deep-brain-stimulation, 1486