Parasites and immunotherapy: with or against?

Journal of Parasitic Diseases - Tập 40 - Trang 217-226 - 2014
Hossein Yousofi Darani1, Morteza Yousefi2, Marzieh Safari3, Rasool Jafari4
1Cancer Prevention Research Center, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
2Student Research Committee, Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences, Shahrekord, Iran
3Department of Medical Microbiology, School of Medicine, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
4Department of Parasitology and Mycology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran

Tóm tắt

Immunotherapy is a sort of therapy in which antibody or antigen administrates to the patient in order to treat or reduce the severity of complications of disease. This kind of treatment practiced in a wide variety of diseases including infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders, cancers and allergy. Successful and unsuccessful immunotherapeutic strategies have been practiced in variety of parasitic infections. On the other hand parasites or parasite antigens have also been considered for immunotherapy against other diseases such as cancer, asthma and multiple sclerosis. In this paper immunotherapy against common parasitic infections, and also immunotherapy of cancer, asthma and multiple sclerosis with parasites or parasite antigens have been reviewed.

Tài liệu tham khảo

Adorini L, Sinigaglia F (1997) Pathogenesis and immunotherapy of autoimmune diseases. Immunol Today 18:209–211. doi:10.1016/S0167-5699(97)01031-1 Aranzamendi C, de Bruin A, Kuiper R, Boog CJ, van Eden W, Rutten V, Pinelli E (2013) Protection against allergic airway inflammation during the chronic and acute phases of Trichinella spiralis infection. Clini Exp Allergy 43:103–115. doi:10.1111/cea.12042 Araujo MI, Campos RA, Cardoso LS, Oliveira SC, Carvalho EM (2010) Immunomodulation of the allergic inflammatory response: new developments. Inflamm Allergy Drug Targets 9:73–82. doi:10.2174/187152810791292836 Aref N, Shirzad H, Yousefi M, Darani HY (2012) Effect of different hydatid cyst molecules on hela and vero cell lines growth in vitro. J Immunodefic Disor 2:1. doi:10.4172/2324-853X.1000105 Arrowood MJ, Sterling CR, Healey MC (1991) Immunofluorescent microscopical visualization of trails left by gliding Cryptosporidium parvum sporozoites. J Parasitol 77:315–317 Badaro R, Lobo I, Munõs A, Netto EM, Modabber F, Campos-Neto A et al (2006) Immunotherapy for drug-refractory mucosal leishmaniasis. J Infect Dis 194:1151–1159. doi:10.1086/507708 Barral-Netto M, da Silva JS, Barral A, Reed S (1995) Up-regulation of T helper 2 and down-regulation of T helper 1 cytokines during murine retrovirus-induced immunodeficiency syndrome enhances susceptibility of a resistant mouse strain to Leishmania amazonensis. Am J Pathol 146:635–642 Berriel E et al (2013) Antitumor activity of human hydatid cyst fluid in a murine model of colon cancer. ScientificWorldJournal 2013:230176. doi:10.1155/2013/230176 Bjorneby JM, Hunsaker BD, Riggs MW, Perryman LE (1991) Monoclonal antibody immunotherapy in nude mice persistently infected with Cryptosporidium parvum. Infect Immun 59:1172–1176 Bonilla-Musoles F (1984) Immunotherapy in vaginal trichomoniasis–therapeutic and prophylactic effects of the vaccine SolcoTrichovac [Abstract]. Gynakol Rundsch 24(Suppl 3):63–69 Bonnin A, Dubremetz JF, Camerlynck P (1993) A new antigen of Cryptosporidium parvum micronemes possessing epitopes cross-reactive with macrogamete granules. Parasitol Res 79:8–14 Borja-Cabrera GP et al (2004) Effective immunotherapy against canine visceral leishmaniasis with the FML-vaccine. Vaccine 22:2234–2243. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2003.11.039 Boulter-Bitzer JI, Lee H, Trevors JT (2007) Molecular targets for detection and immunotherapy in Cryptosporidium parvum. Biotechnol Adv 25:13–44. doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2006.08.003 Cabrera M, Blackwell JM, Castes M, Trujillo D, Convit J, Shaw MA (2000) Immunotherapy with live BCG plus heat killed Leishmania induces a T helper 1-like response in American cutaneous leishmaniasis patients. Parasite Immunol 22:73–79 Camargo EP (2009) Perspectives of vaccination in Chagas disease revisited. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 104(Suppl 1):275–280 Carrero Rangel JA, Horacio Borges R, Convit García J, Avilan Rovira J, Lima HD (2011) Immunotherapy of cutaneous leishmaniasis: factors that influence their effectiveness [Abstract]. Boletín de Malariología y Salud Ambiental 51:25–33 Casadevall A (1996) Antibody-based therapies for emerging infectious diseases. Emerg Infect Dis 2:200–208. doi:10.3201/eid0203.960306 Casadevall A, Scharff MD (1994) Serum therapy revisited: animal models of infection and development of passive antibody therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 38:1695–1702 Casadevall A, Scharff MD (1995) Return to the past: the case for antibody-based therapies in infectious diseases. Clin Infect Diseases 21:150–161 Cevallos AM, Zhang X, Waldor MK, Jaison S, Zhou X, Tzipori S et al (2000) Molecular cloning and expression of a gene encoding Cryptosporidium parvum glycoproteins gp40 and gp15. Infect Immun 68:4108–4116 Chamond N, Coatnoan N, Minoprio P (2002) Immunotherapy of Trypanosoma cruzi infections. Curr Drug Targets Immune Endocr Metabol Disord 2:247–254 Cheever AW et al (1994) Anti-IL-4 treatment of Schistosoma mansoni-infected mice inhibits development of T cells and non-B, non-T cells expressing Th2 cytokines while decreasing egg-induced hepatic fibrosis [Abstract]. J Immunol 153:753–759 Chen L et al (2011) Antitumor effect of malaria parasite infection in a murine Lewis lung cancer model through induction of innate and adaptive immunity. PLoS ONE 6:e24407. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0024407 Chiaramonte MG, Donaldson DD, Cheever AW, Wynn TA (1999) An IL-13 inhibitor blocks the development of hepatic fibrosis during a T-helper type 2-dominated inflammatory response. J Clin Investig 104:777–785. doi:10.1172/jci7325 Convit J, Rondon A, Ulrich M, Bloom B, Castellanos P, Pinardi M, Castes M, Garcia L et al (1987) Immunotherapy versus chemotherapy in localised cutaneous leishmaniasis. Lancet 1:401–405. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(87)90116-4 Convit J, Castellanos PL, Ulrich M, Castes M, Rondon A, Pinardi ME et al (1989) Immunotherapy of localized, intermediate, and diffuse forms of American cutaneous leishmaniasis. J Infect Dis 160:104–115. doi:10.1093/infdis/160.1.104 Convit J, Ulrich M, Zerpa O, Borges R, Aranzazu N, Valera M et al (2003) Immunotherapy of american cutaneous leishmaniasis in Venezuela during the period 1990-99. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 97:469–472 Cooper PJ (2004) Intestinal worms and human allergy. Parasite Immunol 26:455–467. doi:10.1111/j.0141-9838.2004.00728.x Correale J (1950) Farez MF (2013) Parasite infections in multiple sclerosis modulate immune responses through a retinoic acid-dependent pathway. J Immunol 191:3827–3837. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.1301110 Correale J (2014) Helminth/Parasite treatment of multiple sclerosis. Curr Treat Options Neurology 16:296. doi:10.1007/s11940-014-0296-3 Crabb JH (1998) Antibody-based immunotherapy of cryptosporidiosis. Adv Parasitol 40:121–149 Darani HY, Yousefi M (2012) Parasites and cancers: parasite antigens as possible targets for cancer immunotherapy. Future Oncol 8:1529–1535. doi:10.2217/fon.12.155 Darani HY, Shirzad H, Mansoori F, Zabardast N, Mahmoodzadeh M (2009) Effects of Toxoplasma gondii and Toxocara canis antigens on WEHI-164 fibrosarcoma growth in a mouse model. Korean J Parasitol 47:175–177. doi:10.3347/kjp.2009.47.2.175 de Souza W, de Carvalho TM, Barrias ES (2010) Review on Trypanosoma cruzi: host Cell Interaction. International J Cell Biol. doi:10.1155/2010/295394 de Vries JE (1998) The role of IL-13 and its receptor in allergy and inflammatory responses. J Allergy Clin Immunol 102:165–169 Duthie MS, Wleklinski-Lee M, Smith S, Nakayama T, Taniguchi M, Kahn SJ (2002) During Trypanosoma cruzi infection CD1d-restricted NK T cells limit parasitemia and augment the antibody response to a glycophosphoinositol-modified surface protein. Infect Immun 70:36–48 Falcone FH, Pritchard DI (2005) Parasite role reversal: worms on trial. Trends Parasitol 21:157–160. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2005.02.002 Falcone FH, Loukas A, Quinnell RJ, Pritchard DI (2004) The innate allergenicity of helminth parasites. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 26:61–72. doi:10.1385/criai:26:1:61 Fayer R (2009) General Biology. In: Fayer R, Xiao L (eds) Cryptosporidium and cryptosporidiosis, 2nd edn. CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group, New York, pp 1–35 Fayer R, Ellis W (1993) Paromomycin is effective as prophylaxis for cryptosporidiosis in dairy calves [Abstract]. J Parasitol 79:771–774 Fayer R, Guidry A, Blagburn BL (1990) Immunotherapeutic efficacy of bovine colostral immunoglobulins from a hyperimmunized cow against cryptosporidiosis in neonatal mice. Infect Immun 58:2962–2965 Fayer R, Morgan U, Upton SJ (2000) Epidemiology of Cryptosporidium: transmission, detection and identification. Int J Parasitol 30:1305–1322 Figueiredo CA, Cooper P, Barreto M, Alcantara-Neves NM, Barnes K (2012) Conference scene: parasites to treat immune-mediated diseases? Immunotherapy 4:573–575. doi:10.2217/imt.12.44 Fleming JO (2013) Helminth therapy and multiple sclerosis. Int J Parasitol 43:259–274. doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2012.10.025 Freeman GJ, Sharpe AH (2012) A new therapeutic strategy for malaria: targeting T cell exhaustion. Nature Immunol 13:113–115. doi:10.1038/ni.2211 Galvan-Ramirez Mde L, Troyo R, Roman S, Calvillo-Sanchez C, Bernal-Redondo R (2012) A systematic review and meta-analysis of Toxoplasma gondii infection among the Mexican population. Parasites Vectors 5:271. doi:10.1186/1756-3305-5-271 Genaro O, de Toledo VP, da Costa CA, Hermeto MV, Afonso LC, Mayrink W (1996) Vaccine for prophylaxis and immunotherapy. Brazil Clin Dermatol 14:503–512 Gombosova A, Demes P, Valent M (1986) Immunotherapeutic effect of the lactobacillus vaccine, Solco Trichovac, in trichomoniasis is not mediated by antibodies cross reacting with Trichomonas vaginalis. Genitourin Med 62:107–110 Grogl M, Thomason TN, Franke ED (1992) Drug resistance in leishmaniasis: its implication in systemic chemotherapy of cutaneous and mucocutaneous disease. Am J Trop Med Hyg 47:117–126 Hadighi R, Mohebali M, Boucher P, Hajjaran H, Khamesipour A, Ouellette M (2006) Unresponsiveness to Glucantime treatment in Iranian cutaneous leishmaniasis due to drug-resistant Leishmania tropica parasites. PLoS Med 3:e162. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0030162 Holaday BJ, Sadick MD, Wang ZE, Reiner SL, Heinzel FP, Parslow TG (1950) Locksley RM (1991) Reconstitution of Leishmania immunity in severe combined immunodeficient mice using Th1- and Th2-like cell lines [Abstract]. J Immunol 147:1653–1658 Hsueh EC, Morton DL (2003) Antigen-based immunotherapy of melanoma: canvaxin therapeutic polyvalent cancer vaccine. Semin Cancer Biol 13:401–407. doi:10.1016/j.semcancer.2003.09.003 Hyde JE (2007) Drug-resistant malaria—an insight. FEBS J 274:4688–4698. doi:10.1111/j.1742-4658.2007.05999.x Jafari R, Maghsood AH, Fallah M (2013) Prevalence of Cryptosporidium Infection among livestock and humans in contact with livestock in Hamadan District, Iran, 2012. J Res Health Sci 13:86–89 Jafari R, Maghsood AH, Safari M, Latifi M, Fallah M. Comparison of fecal antigen detection using enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) with auramine-phenol staining method for diagnosis of human cryptosporidiosis. Jundishapur J Microbiol (in press) Jafari R, Sadaghian M, Safari M (2012) Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii Infection and Related Risk Factors in Tabriz City, Iran, 2008. J Res Health Sci 12:119–121 Jafari R, Fallah M, Yousofi Darani H, Yousefi HA, Mohaghegh MA, Latifi M, Sadaghian M, Maghsood AH (2014a) Prevalence of intestinal parasitic infections among rural inhabitants of Hamadan city, Iran, 2012. Avicenna J Clin Microbiol Infect 1:e21445 Jafari R, Gharibi Z, Fallah M (2014b) The Prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection among renal transplanted patients in Hamadan city West of Iran. Avecinna J Clin Microbiol Infect 1:e19570 Jenkins MC, Fayer R (1995) Cloning and expression of cDNA encoding an antigenic Cryptosporidium parvum protein. Mol Biochem Parasitol 71:149–152 Jenkins MC, O’Brien C, Trout J, Guidry A, Fayer R (1999a) Hyperimmune bovine colostrum specific for recombinant Cryptosporidium parvum antigen confers partial protection against cryptosporidiosis in immunosuppressed adult mice. Vaccine 17:2453–2460 Jenkins MC, Trout J, Murphy C, Harp JA, Higgins J, Wergin W, Fayer R (1999b) Cloning and expression of a DNA sequence encoding a 41-kilodalton Cryptosporidium parvum oocyst wall protein. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 6:912–920 Jenkins-Holick DS, Kaul TL (2013) Schistosomiasis. Urologic Nursing 33:163–170 Kallinikova VD et al (2006) Immunization against Trypanosoma cruzi and tumor growth in mice. Med Parazitologiia i parazitarnye bolezni 4:9–12 Kaplan MH, Whitfield JR, Boros DL (1950) Grusby MJ (1998) Th2 cells are required for the Schistosoma mansoni egg-induced granulomatous response. J Immunol 160:1850–1856 Karkut G (1984) Effect of lactobacillus immunotherapy on genital infections in women (Solco Trichovac/Gynatren)] [Abstract]. Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd 44:311–314. doi:10.1055/s-2008-1036665 Kim JO, Jung SS, Kim SY, Kim TY, Shin DW, Lee JH, Lee YH (2007) Inhibition of Lewis lung carcinoma growth by Toxoplasma gondii through induction of Th1 immune responses and inhibition of angiogenesis. J Korean Med Sci 22(Suppl):S38–S46 Klaver EJ et al (2013) Trichuris suis-induced modulation of human dendritic cell function is glycan-mediated. Int J Parasitol 43:191–200. doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2012.10.021 Kumar S, Tarleton RL (2001) Antigen-specific Th1 but not Th2 cells provide protection from lethal Trypanosoma cruzi infection in mice. J Immunol 166:4596–4603. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.166.7.4596 Liu MA (2003) DNA vaccines: a review. J Intern Med 253:402–410 Liu MA (2011) DNA vaccines: an historical perspective and view to the future. Immunol Rev 239:62–84. doi:10.1111/j.1600-065X.2010.00980.x Machado-Pinto J, Pinto J, da Costa CA, Genaro O, Marques MJ, Modabber F, Mayrink W (2002) Immunochemotherapy for cutaneous leishmaniasis: a controlled trial using killed Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis vaccine plus antimonial. Int J Dermatol 41:73–78 Mayrink W, Magalhaes PA, Michalick MS, da Costa CA, Lima Ade O, Melo MN et al (1992) Immunotherapy as a treatment of American cutaneous leishmaniasis: preliminary studies in Brazil [Abstract]. Parassitologia 34:159–165 Mayrink W, Botelho AC, Magalhaes PA, Batista SM, Lima Ade O, Genaro O et al (2006) Immunotherapy, immunochemotherapy and chemotherapy for American cutaneous leishmaniasis treatment. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 39:14–21 Mel’nikov VG, Fierro Velasko FH, Dobrovinskaya OR (2004) Suppression of growth and metastasizing of T-cell lymphoma in mice infected with american trypanosomiasis at different stages of experimental infection. Bull Exp Biol Med 137:475–478 Miyahara K et al (1992) Antitumor activity of Toxoplasma lysate antigen against methylcholanthrene-induced tumor-bearing rats. J Vet Med Sci 54:221–228 Nesterenko MV, Woods K, Upton SJ (1999) Receptor/ligand interactions between Cryptosporidium parvum and the surface of the host cell. Biochim Biophys Acta 1454:165–173 Noguchi T, Ritter G, Nishikawa H (2013) Antibody-based therapy in colorectal cancer. Immunotherapy 5:533–545. doi:10.2217/imt.13.35 Oikonomopoulou K, Brinc D, Kyriacou K, Diamandis EP (2013) Infection and cancer: revaluation of the hygiene hypothesis. Clin Cancer Res 19:2834–2841. doi:10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-12-3661 Okwor I, Uzonna JE (2009) Immunotherapy as a strategy for treatment of leishmaniasis: a review of the literature. Immunotherapy 1:765–776. doi:10.2217/imt.09.40 Oldham RK (1988) Principles of cancer biotherapy. Am J Clin Oncol 11:684 Pavia CS (1986) Protection against experimental toxoplasmosis by adoptive immunotherapy. J Immunol 137:2985–2990 Perryman LE, Kapil SJ, Jones ML, Hunt EL (1999) Protection of calves against cryptosporidiosis with immune bovine colostrum induced by a Cryptosporidium parvum recombinant protein. Vaccine 17:2142–2149 Petersen C, Gut J, Doyle PS, Crabb JH, Nelson RG, Leech JH (1992) Characterization of a >900,000-M(r) Cryptosporidium parvum sporozoite glycoprotein recognized by protective hyperimmune bovine colostral immunoglobulin. Infect Immun 60:5132–5138 Pidherney MS, Alizadeh H, Stewart GL, McCulley JP, Niederkorn JY (1993) In vitro and in vivo tumoricidal properties of a pathogenic/free-living amoeba. Cancer Lett 72:91–98 Pritchard DI, Brown A (2001) Is Necator americanus approaching a mutualistic symbiotic relationship with humans? Trends Parasitol 17:169–172 Rasouli S, Sadaghian M, Jafari R (2014) Prevalence of human toxoplasmosis and related risk factors using Electrochemiluminescence (ECLIA) method in West Azarbaijan Province, Iran, 2010. International J Biosci 4:124–130. doi:10.12692/ijb/4.8.124-130 Riggs M (1997) Immunology. In: Fayer R (ed) Cryptosporidium and Cryptosporidiosis, 1st edn. CRCPress, Boca Raton, pp 61–129 Riggs MW (2002) Recent advances in cryptosporidiosis: the immune response. Microbes Infect 4:1067–1080 Riggs MW, Cama VA, Leary HL Jr, Sterling CR (1994) Bovine antibody against Cryptosporidium parvum elicits a circumsporozoite precipitate-like reaction and has immunotherapeutic effect against persistent cryptosporidiosis in SCID mice. Infect Immun 62:1927–1939 Riggs MW, McNeil MR, Perryman LE, Stone AL, Scherman MS, O’Connor RM (1999) Cryptosporidium parvum sporozoite pellicle antigen recognized by a neutralizing monoclonal antibody is a beta-mannosylated glycolipid. Infect Immun 67:1317–1322 Rzepecka J, Harnett W (2013) Impact of worms and their products on eosinophils and neutrophils in experimental asthma. Curr Mol Med 13:1192–1202 Safari M, Saidijam M, Bahador A, Jafari R, Alikhani MY (2013) High Prevalence of Multidrug Resistance and Metallo-beta-lactamase (MbetaL) producing Acinetobacter Baumannii Isolated from Patients in ICU Wards, Hamadan, Iran. J Res Health Sci 13:162–167 Safari M, Alikhani MY, Arabestani MR, Kamali Kakhki R, Jafari R (2014) Prevalence of Metallo-β-lactamases encoding genes among pseudomonas aeruginosa strains isolated from the bedridden patients in the intensive care units. Avicenna J Clin Microb Infec 1:e19216 Santín M, Trout JM (2009) Livestock. In: Fayer R, Xiao L (eds) Cryptosporidium and cryptosporidiosis, 2nd edn. CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group, New York, pp 451–483 Santos WR, Aguiar IA, de Paraguai Souza E, de Lima VM, Palatnik M, de Palatnik-Sousa CB (2003) Immunotherapy against murine experimental visceral leishmaniasis with the FML-vaccine. Vaccine 21:4668–4676 Schofield L, Vivas L, Hackett F, Gerold P, Schwarz RT, Tachado S (1993) Neutralizing monoclonal antibodies to glycosylphosphatidylinositol, the dominant TNF-alpha-inducing toxin of Plasmodium falciparum: prospects for the immunotherapy of severe malaria. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 87:617–626 Schwebke JR, Burgess D (2004) Trichomoniasis. Clin Microbiol Reviews 17:794–803. doi:10.1128/cmr.17.4.794-803.2004 Scrivener S, Yemaneberhan H, Zebenigus M, Tilahun D, Girma S, Ali S et al (2001) Independent effects of intestinal parasite infection and domestic allergen exposure on risk of wheeze in Ethiopia: a nested case-control study. Lancet 358:1493–1499. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(01)06579-5 Shirzad H, Khorami S, Soozangar N, Yousefi M, Darani HY (2012) Toxoplasma gondii but Not Leishmania major or Trichomonas vaginalis decreases cell proliferation and increases cell death on fibrosarcoma cancer cells in culture medium world. J Vaccines 2:105–108 Spano F, Putignani L, Naitza S, Puri C, Wright S, Crisanti A (1998) Molecular cloning and expression analysis of a Cryptosporidium parvum gene encoding a new member of the thrombospondin family. Mol Biochem Parasitol 92:147–162 Strong WB, Gut J, Nelson RG (2000) Cloning and sequence analysis of a highly polymorphic Cryptosporidium parvum gene encoding a 60 kilodalton glycoprotein and characterization of its 15- and 45-kilodalton zoite surface antigen products. Infect Immun 68:4117–4134 Tarleton RL (2001) Parasite persistence in the aetiology of Chagas disease. Int J Parasitol 31:550–554 Tarleton RL, Grusby MJ (1950) Zhang L (2000) Increased susceptibility of Stat4-deficient and enhanced resistance in Stat6-deficient mice to infection with Trypanosoma cruzi. J Immunol 165:1520–1525 Taylor DW (1991) Monoclonal antibodies to a pan-malarial antigen. Google Patents Theodos CM, Griffiths JK, D’Onfro J, Fairfield A, Tzipori S (1998) Efficacy of nitazoxanide against Cryptosporidium parvum in cell culture and in animal models. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 42:1959–1965 Tosini F, Agnoli A, Mele R, Gomez Morales MA, Pozio E (2004) A new modular protein of Cryptosporidium parvum, with ricin B and LCCL domains, expressed in the sporozoite invasive stage. Mol Biochem Parasitol 134:137–147 Tse BW, Collins A, Oehler MK, Zippelius A, Heinzelmann-Schwarz VA (2014) Antibody-based immunotherapy for ovarian cancer: where are we at? Ann Oncol 25:322–331. doi:10.1093/annonc/mdt405 Tzipori S, Rand W, Griffiths J, Widmer G, Crabb J (1994) Evaluation of an animal model system for cryptosporidiosis: therapeutic efficacy of paromomycin and hyperimmune bovine colostrum-immunoglobulin. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 1:450–463 van der Weiden RM, van der Meijden WI, Bogchelman DH, Polderman AM (1990) Treatment failure in trichomoniasis and persistence of the parasite after Lactobacillus immunotherapy; two case reports. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 34:171–178 Van Kaer L (2004) Natural killer T cells as targets for immunotherapy of autoimmune diseases. Immunol Cell Biol 82:315–322. doi:10.1111/j.0818-9641.2004.01252.x Verwaerde C, Thiam K, Delanoye A, Fernandez-Gomez R, D’Halluin J, Auriault C (1999) Systemic delivery of an adenovirus expressing EBV-derived vIL-10 in mice infected with Schistosoma mansoni or Leishmania amazonensis: controversial effects on the development of pathological parameters. Eur Cytokine Netw 10:161–170 Vineis P, Wild CP (2014) Global cancer patterns: causes and prevention. Lancet 383:549–557. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(13)62224-2 Weiner LM, Murray JC, Shuptrine CW (2012) Antibody-based immunotherapy of cancer. Cell 148:1081–1084. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2012.02.034 Wilson MT, Singh AK, Van Kaer L (2002) Immunotherapy with ligands of natural killer T cells. Trends Mol Med 8:225–231 Wynn TA, Cheever AW, Jankovic D, Poindexter RW, Caspar P, Lewis FA, Sher A (1995) An IL-12-based vaccination method for preventing fibrosis induced by schistosome infection [Abstract]. Nature 376:594–596. doi:10.1038/376594a0 Yazdanbakhsh M, Kremsner PG, van Ree R (2002) Allergy, parasites, and the hygiene hypothesis. Science 296:490–494 Yousofi Darani H, Soozangar N, Khorami S, Taji F, Yousofi M, Shirzad H (2012) Hydatid Cyst Protoscolices Induce Cell Death in WEHI-164 fibrosarcoma cells and inhibit the proliferation of baby hamster kidney fibroblasts in vitro. J Parasitol Res 2012:1–4. doi:10.1155/2012/304183 Zhou P, Chen Z, Li HL, Zheng H, He S, Lin RQ, Zhu XQ (2011) Toxoplasma gondii infection in humans in China. Parasites Vectors 4:165. doi:10.1186/1756-3305-4-165