Organophosphate Toxicology: Safety Aspects of Nonacetylcholinesterase Secondary Targets
Tóm tắt
Từ khóa
Tài liệu tham khảo
Tomlin C., 2003, The Pesticide Manual, 13
Eto M., 1974, Organophosphorus Pesticides: Organic and Biological Chemistry, 387 pp
Ware G. W., 2000, The Pesticide Book, 5
Nauen R., 2002, New modes of action of insecticides. Pestic. Outlook 13, 241−245
Barr D. B., 2004, Concentrations of dialkyl phosphate metabolites of organophosphorus pesticides in the U.S. population. Environ. Health Perspect. 112, 186−200
Taylor P., 2001, Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 10, 191
Marrs T. C., 1996, Chemical Warfare Agents: Toxicology and Treatment, 243 pp
Karczmar A., 1998, Int. 32, 401−411.
Holmstedt B., 1963, Cholinesterases and Anticholinesterase Agents (Koelle, G. B., Sub-Ed.), 485
Gallo M. A., 1991, Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology, 2, 1123
Lotti M., 2000, Experimental and Clinical Neurotoxicology, 2, 925
Pope C. N., 1999, J. Toxicol. Environ. Health, Part B, 2
Ray D. E., 2001, Toxicol. Lett., 120
Rachinsky T. L., 1990, Molecular cloning of mouse acetylcholinesterase: tissue distribution of alternatively spliced mRNA species. Neuron 5, 317−327
Bourne Y., 1999, J. Biol. Chem., 274
Lockridge O., 1987, J. Biol. Chem., 262
Lush M. J., 1998, Biochem. J., 332, 4
Bracey M. H., 2002, Structural adaptations in a membrane enzyme that terminates endocannabinoid signaling. Science 298, 1793−1796
Abood M. E., 1997, Isolation and expression of a mouse CB1 cannabinoid receptor gene. Biochem. Pharmacol. 53, 207−214
Xie W., 2000, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 293
Winrow C. J., 2003, Loss of neuropathy target esterase in mice links organophosphate exposure to hyperactivity. Nat. Genet. 33, 477−485
Moser M., 2004, Placental failure and impaired vasculogenesis result in embryonic lethality for neuropathy target esterase-deficient mice. Mol. Cell. Biol. 24, 1667−1679
Akassoglou K., 2004, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101
Cravatt B. F., 2001, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98
Zimmer A., 1999, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 96
Rubin G. M., 2000, Comparative genomics of eukaryotes. Science 287, 2204−2215
Quistad G. B., 2003, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 100
Segall Y., 2003, Toxicological and structural features of organophosphorus and organosulfur cannabinoid CB1 receptor ligands. Toxicol. Sci. 76, 131−137
Segall, Y., Quistad, G. B., and Casida, J. E. (2003) Cannabinoid CB1 receptor chemical affinity probes: methods suitable for preparation of isopropyl [11,12-3H]dodecylfluorophosphonate and [11,12-3H]dodecanesulfonyl fluoride.Synth. Commun.33, 2151−2159.
Menge U., 1979, Formamidase-untersuchungen zu mikroheterogenität, katalytischen eigenschaften und inhibitoren. Hoppe-Seyler's Z. Physiol. Chem. 360, 185−196
Richards P. G., 2000, Identification of acylpeptide hydrolase as a sensitive site for reaction with organophosphorus compounds and a potential target for cognitive enhancing drugs. Mol. Pharmacol. 58, 577−583
Aldridge W. N., 1972, Enzyme Inhibitors as Substrates: Interactions of Esterases with Esters of Organophosphorus and Carbamic Acids, 328 pp
Jennings L. L., 2003, Direct analysis of the kinetic profiles of organophosphate-acetylcholinesterase adducts by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. Biochemistry 42, 11083−11091
Kropp T. J., 2004, Abstract 1097
Quistad, G. B., Zhang, N., Sparks, S. E., and Casida, J. E. (2000) Phosphoacetylcholinesterase: toxicity of phosphorus oxychloride to mammals and insects that can be attributed to selective phosphorylation of acetylcholinesterase by phosphorodichloridic acid.Chem. Res. Toxicol.13, 652−657.
Segall Y., 2003, POCl3, PSCl3, and their diethyl esters) are anticholinesterase agents directly or on activation. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 16, 350−356.
Haux J. E., 2002, Specificity of ethephon as a butyrylcholinesterase inhibitor and phosphorylating agent. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 15, 1527−1533
Haux J. E., 2000, Phosphobutyrylcholinesterase: phosphorylation of the esteratic site of butyrylcholinesterase by ethephon [(2-chloroethyl)phosphonic acid] dianion. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 13, 646−651
Kropp T. J., 2004, The mipafox-inhibited catalytic domain of human neuropathy target esterase ages by reversible proton loss. Biochemistry 43, 3716−3722
Doorn, J. A., Thompson, C. M., Christner, R. B., and Richardson, R. J. (2003) Stereoselective inactivation ofTorpedo californicaacetylcholinesterase by isomalathion: inhibitory reactions with (1R)- and (1S)-isomers proceed by different mechanisms.Chem. Res. Toxicol.16, 958−965.
Kuhr R. J., 1976, Carbamate Insecticides: Chemistry, Biochemistry, and Toxicology, 301 pp
Brown J. H., 2001, Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 10, 173
O'Brien R. D., 1967, Insecticides: Action and Metabolism, 332 pp
He F., 2000, Neurotoxic effects of insecticidescurrent and future research: A review. Neurotoxicology 21, 829−836
Duysen E. G., 2001, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 299
Li B., 2003, Biochem. Behav. 74, 977−986.
Yagle K., 1996, Effects of organophosphate exposure on muscarinic acetylcholine receptor subtype mRNA levels in the adult rat. Neurotoxicology 17, 523−530
Bernard V., 2003, Dramatic depletion of cell surface m2 muscarinic receptor due to limited delivery from intracytoplasmic stores in neurons of acetylcholinesterase-deficient mice. Mol. Cell. Neurosci. 23, 121−133
Volpicelli-Daley L. A., 2003, Altered hippocampal muscarinic receptors in acetylcholinesterase-deficient mice. Ann. Neurol. 53, 788−796
Volpicelli-Daley L. A., 2003, Altered striatal function and muscarinic cholinergic receptors in acetylcholinesterase knockout mice. Mol. Pharmacol. 64, 1309−1316
Li B., 2000, J. Neurochem., 75
Mesulam M.-M., 2002, Acetylcholinesterase knockouts establish central cholinergic pathways and can use butyrylcholinesterase to hydrolyze acetylcholine. Neuroscience 110, 627−639
Behra M., 2004, The use of zebrafish mutants to identify secondary target effects of acetylcholine esterase inhibitors. Toxicol. Sci. 77, 325−333
Sparks S. E., 1999, J. Biochem. Mol. Toxicol., 13, 10.1002/(SICI)1099-0461(1999)13:2<113::AID-JBT7>3.0.CO;2-8
Herschman Z., 1991, Prolongation of cocaine effect. Anesthesiology 74, 631−632
Hoffman R. S., 1992, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 263
Broomfield C. A., 1991, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 259
Zhan C.-G., 2003, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 125
Sun H., 2002, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 302
Gomeza J., 1999, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 96
Silveira C. L. P., 1990, Putative M2 muscarinic receptors of rat heart have high affinity 995 for organophosphorus anticholinesterases. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 103, 474−481
Jett D. A., 1991, High-affinity activation by paraoxon of a muscarinic receptor subtype in rat brain striatum. Pestic. Biochem. Physiol. 39, 149−157
Ward T. R., 1996, Brain Res. Bull., 39, 55
Huff R. A., 1994, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 269
Olivier K., Jr., 2001, J. Biochem. Mol. Toxicol., 15
Ward T. R., 1993, Correlation of the anticholinesterase activity of a series of organophosphates with their ability to compete with agonist binding to muscarinic receptors. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 122, 300−307
Liu J., 2002, vitro effects of organophosphorus anticholinesterases on muscarinic receptor-mediated inhibition of acetylcholine release in rat striatum. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 178, 102−108
Katz L. S., 1992, Organophosphate-induced alterations in muscarinic receptor binding and phosphoinositide hydrolysis in the human SK-N-SH cell line. Neurotoxicology 13, 365−378
Huff R. A., 2001, Effects of sub-chronic in vivo chlorpyrifos exposure on muscarinic receptors and adenylate cyclase of rat striatum. Arch. Toxicol. 75, 480−486
Betancourt A., 2004, Toxicol. Sci., 77, 71
Song X., 1997, Cellular mechanisms for developmental toxicity of chlorpyrifos: targeting the adenylyl cyclase signaling cascade. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 145, 158−174
Meyer A., 2003, Developmental neurotoxicity elicited by gestational exposure to chlorpyrifos: when is adenylyl cyclase a target? Environ. Health Perspect. 111
Zhang H., 2002, Age-related effects of chlorpyrifos on muscarinic receptor-mediated signaling in rat cortex. Arch. Toxicol. 75, 676−684
Costa L. G., 1982, Differential alterations of cholinergic muscarinic receptors during chronic and acute tolerance to organophosphorus insecticides. Biochem. Pharmacol. 31, 3407−3413
Tang J., 2003, The effects of repeated oral exposures to methyl parathion on rat brain cholinesterase and muscarinic receptors during postnatal development. Toxicol. Sci. 76, 400−406
Slotkin T. A., 2001, Persistent cholinergic presynaptic deficits after neonatal chlorpyrifos exposure. Brain Res. 902, 229−243
Qiao, D., Seidler, F. J., Tate, C. A., Cousins, M. M., and Slotkin, T. A. (2003) Fetal chlorpyrifos exposure: adverse effects on brain cell development and cholinergic biomarkers emerge postnatally and continue into adolescence and adulthood.Environ. Health Perspect.111, 536−544.
Liu J., 1996, Fundam. Appl. Toxicol., 34, 90
Liu J., 1998, J. Toxicol. Environ. Health, Part A, 53
Mattio T. G., 1985, Acute effects of cholinesterase inhibitors on uptake of choline in the rat iris. Pharmacology 24, 325−328
Kaufer D., 1999, Anticholinesterases induce multigenic transcriptional feedback response suppressing cholinergic neurotransmission. Chem.-Biol. Interact. 119−120, 349−360
Karanth S., 2003, Age-related effects of chlorpyrifos and parathion on acetylcholine synthesis in rat striatum. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 25, 599−606
Wu Y.-J., 2003, Nicotinic autoreceptor function in rat brain during maturation and aging: possible differential sensitivity to organophosphorus anticholinesterases. Chem.-Biol. Interact. 142, 255−268
Katz E. J., 1997, Chlorpyrifos, parathion, and their oxons bind to and desensitize a nicotinic acetylcholine receptor: relevance to their toxicities. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 146, 227−236
Johnson M. K., 1975, Organophosphorus esters causing delayed neurotoxic effects: mechanism of action and structure/activity studies. Arch. Toxicol. 34, 259−288, 10.1007/BF00353848
Smith M. I., 1930, The pharmacological action of certain phenol esters with special reference to the etiology of so-called ginger paralysis. U.S. Publ. Health Rep. 45, 2509−2524
Smith H. V., 1959, Outbreak of paralysis in Morocco due to ortho-cresyl phosphate poisoning. Lancet II, 1019−1021
Ehrich M., 2001, Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology, 2, 2, 1012
Winder, C., and Balouet, J.C. (2002) The toxicity of commercial jet oils.Environ. Res. Sect. A89, 146−164.
Casida J. E., 1961, Biological activity of a tri-o-cresyl phosphate metabolite. Nature 191, 1396−1397
Eto M., 1962, Hydroxylation and cyclization reactions involved in the metabolism of tri-o-cresyl phosphate. Biochem. Pharmacol. 11, 337−352
Eto M., 1967, Plasma albumin as a catalyst in cyclization of diaryl o-(α-hydroxy)tolyl phosphates. Biochem. Pharmacol. 16, 295−308
Johnson M. K., 2001, Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology, 2, 2, 965
Wu S. Y., 1996, Subacute neurotoxicity induced in mice by potent organophosphorus neuropathy target esterase inhibitors. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 139, 195−202
Johnson M. K., 1977, Improved assay of neurotoxic esterase for screening organophosphates for delayed neurotoxicity potential. Arch. Toxicol. 37, 113−115
Atkins J., 2000, J. Biol. Chem., 275
Xie, M., Yang, D., Matoney, L., and Yan, B. (2003) Rat NTE-related esterase is a membrane-associated protein, hydrolyzes phenyl valerate, and interacts with diisopropylfluorophosphate through a serine catalytic machinery.Arch. Biochem. Biophys.416, 137−146.
Li Y., 2003, J. Biol. Chem., 278
Wang A., 1999, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1439, 16
Xu Y., 2002, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1582, 88
Kabarowski J. H. S., 2002, Lysophosphatidylcholine as a ligand for immunoregulation. Biochem. Pharmacol. 64, 161−167
Quistad G. B., 2004, Lysophospholipase inhibition by organophosphorus toxicants. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 196, 319−326
Wang A., 1997, J. Biol. Chem., 272
Wang A., 1999, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1437
El-Sebae A. H., 1977, J. Environ. Sci. Health B, 12
Tahmaz N., 2003, Chronic fatigue and organophosphate pesticides in sheep farming: a retrospective study amongst people reporting to a UK pharmacovigilance scheme. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 47, 261−267
Institute of Medicine, 2000, Gulf War and Health, 1
Lotti M., 2002, Low-level exposures to organophosphorus esters and peripheral nerve function. Muscle Nerve 25, 492−504
Rodgers K. E., 1995, Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology, 1, 2, 782
Aldridge W. N., 1985, S47−S60.
Bomser J., 2000, J. Biochem. Mol. Toxicol., 14, 10.1002/1099-0461(2000)14:6<346::AID-JBT7>3.0.CO;2-H
Caughlan, A., Newhouse, K., Namgung, U., and Xia, Z. (2004) Chlorpyrifos induces apoptosis in rat cortical neurons that is regulated by a balance between p38 and ERK/JNK MAP kinases.Toxicol. Sci. 78, 125−134.
Lin W.-W., 1999, Br. J. Pharmacol., 126
Kaufer D., 1999, Anticholinesterases induce multigenic transcriptional feedback response suppressing cholinergic neurotransmission. Chem.-Biol. Interact. 119−120, 349−360
Fox J. H., 2003, J. Biochem. Mol. Toxicol., 17
Damodaran T. V., 2002, Sarin causes altered time course of mRNA expression of alpha tubulin in the central nervous system of rats. Neurochem. Res. 27, 177−181
Damodaran, T. V., Bilska, M. A., Rahman, A. A., and Abou-Donia, M. B. (2002) Sarin causes early differential alteration and persistent overexpression in mRNAs coding for glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and vimentin genes in the central nervous system of rats.Neurochem. Res.27, 407−415.
Sekowski J. W., 2003, Alternative Toxicological Methods
Deutsch D. G., 2002, Leukotrienes Essent. Fatty Acids 66, 201−210.
Deutsch D. G., 1997, Methyl arachidonyl fluorophosphonate: a potent irreversible inhibitor of anandamide amidase. Biochem. Pharmacol. 53, 255−260
Martin B. R., 2000, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 294
Deutsch D. G., 1997, Fatty acid sulfonyl fluorides inhibit anandamide metabolism and bind to the cannabinoid receptor. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 231, 217−221
Roger J.-C., 1964, Nicotinic acid analogues: effects on response of chick embryos and hens to organophosphate toxicants. Science 144, 539−540
Seifert J., 1981, Progress in Pesticide Biochemistry, 246
Roger J.-C., 1969, Structure−activity and metabolism studies on organophosphate teratogens and their alleviating agents in developing hen eggs with special emphasis on Bidrin. Biochem. Pharmacol. 18, 373−392
Proctor N. H., 1975, Organophosphorus and methyl carbamate insecticide teratogenesis: diminished NAD in chicken embryos. Science 190, 580−582
Proctor N. H., 1976, Chicken embryo NAD levels lowered by teratogenic organophosphorus and methylcarbamate insecticides. Biochem. Pharmacol. 25, 757−762
Moscioni A. D., 1977, Kynurenine formamidase inhibition as a possible mechanism for certain teratogenic effects of organophosphorus and methylcarbamate insecticides in chicken embryos. Biochem. Pharmacol. 26, 2251−2258
Seifert, J., and Casida, J. E. (1978) Relation of yolk sac membrane kynurenine formamidase inhibition to certain teratogenic effects of organophosphorus insecticides and of carbaryl and eserine in chicken embryos.Biochem. Pharmacol. 27, 2611−2615.
Eto M., 1980, Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 54, 30
Upshall D. G., 1968, Biochemical studies on the teratogenic action of Bidrin and other neuroactive agents in developing hen eggs. Biochem. Pharmacol. 17, 1529−1542
Seifert J., 1992, Alteration of mice L-tryptophan metabolism by the organophosphorous acid triester diazinon. Biochem. Pharmacol. 44, 2243−2250
Pewnim T., 1993, Eur. J. Pharmacol., 248
Jones W. M., 1994, Acylaminoacyl-peptidase. Methods Enzymol. 244, 227−231
Liu Y., 1999, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 96
Richards P. G., 2000, Identification of acylpeptide hydrolase as a sensitive site for reaction with organophosphorus compounds and a potential target for cognitive enhancing drugs. Mol. Pharmacol. 58, 577−583
Tsunasawa S., 1984, Amino-terminal acetylation of proteins: an overview. Methods Enzymol. 106, 165−170
Satoh T., 1987, Reviews in Biochemical Toxicology
Ishaaya I., 1983, Pesticide Chemistry: Human Welfare and the Environment, 310
Abernathy C. O., 1973, Substrate-specificity and toxicological significance of pyrethroid-hydrolyzing esterases of mouse liver microsomes. Pestic. Biochem. Physiol. 3, 300−311
Newcomb R. D., 1997, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 94
Still G. G., 1976, Herbicides: Chemistry, Degradation, and Mode of Action, 664
Maxwell D. M., 1992, The specificity of carboxylesterase protection against the toxicity of organophosphorus compounds. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 114, 306−312
Dettbarn W.-D., 1999, Different role of carboxylesterases in toxicity and tolerance to paraoxon and DFP. Chem.-Biol. Interact. 119−120, 445−454
Jokanovic M., 1996, Interaction of organophosphorus compounds with carboxylesterases in the rat. Arch. Toxicol. 70, 444−450
Satoh T., 1973, A liver arylamidase extremely sensitive to organophosphorus compounds. Life Sci. 13, 1181−1188
March R. B., 1956, J. Econ. Entomol., 49
Casida J. E., 1956, J. Agric. Food Chem., 4
Richards P., 1999, Novel protein targets for organophosphorus compounds. Chem.-Biol. Interact. 119−120, 503−511
Richards P., 2002, Functional proteomics using microchannel plate detectors. Proteomics 2, 256−261
Sato T., 1997, J. Biol. Chem., 272
Kidd D., 2001, Profiling serine hydrolase activities in complex proteomes. Biochemistry 40, 4005−4015
Liu Y., 1999, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 96
Keshavarz-Shokri A., 1999, Identification of serine esterases in tissue homogenates. Anal. Biochem. 267, 406−411
Snawder J. E., 1993, Osteolathyrogenic effects of malathion in Xenopus embryos. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 121, 210−216
Schuh R. A., 2002, Noncholinesterase mechanisms of chlorpyrifos neurotoxicity: altered phosphorylation of Ca2+/cAMP response element binding protein in cultured neurons. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 182, 176−185
Kell P. J., 2003, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 307
Hattori M., 1993, J. Biol. Chem., 268
Tamura H., 2003, Interaction of organophosphate pesticides and related compounds with the androgen receptor. Environ. Health Perspect. 111, 545−552
Blasiak J., 1995, Cooperative binding of the organophosphate paraoxon to the (Na+ + K+)-ATPase. Z. Naturforsch. 50, 660−663
Quistad G. B., 2000, J. Biochem. Mol. Toxicol., 14, 56, 10.1002/(SICI)1099-0461(2000)14:1<51::AID-JBT7>3.0.CO;2-W
Crumpton T. L., 2000, Is oxidative stress involved in the developmental neurotoxicity of chlorpyrifos? Dev. Brain Res. 121, 189−195
Eastmond D. A., 2001, Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology, 1, 2, 767
Wright A. S., 1979, Arch. Toxicol., 42, 18
Qiao, D., Seidler, F. J., and Slotkin, T. A. (2001) Developmental neurotoxicity of chlorpyrifos modeled in vitro: comparative effects of metabolites and other cholinesterase inhibitors on DNA synthesis in PC12 and C6 cells.Environ. Health Perspect.109, 909−913.
Das K. P., 1999, Neuronal differentiation in PC12 cells is inhibited by chlorpyrifos and its metabolites: is acetylcholinesterase inhibition the site of action? Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 160, 217−230
Li W., 1998, Toxicol. Lett., 98
Massicotte C., 2003, Morphological effects of neuropathy-inducing organophosphorus compounds in primary dorsal root ganglia cell cultures. Neurotoxicology 24, 787−796
Hong M. S., 2003, Neurotoxicity induced in differentiated SK-N-SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells by organophosphorus compounds. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 186, 110−118
Johnson P. S., 1991, Characterization of organophosphate interactions at N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors in brain synaptic membranes. Mol. Pharmacol. 41, 750−756
Li, Q., Nagahara, N., Takahashi, H., Takeda, K., Okumura, K., and Minami, M. (2002) Organophosphorus pesticides markedly inhibit the activities of natural killer, cytotoxic T lymphocyte and lymphokine-activated killer: a proposed inhibiting mechanism via granzyme inhibition.Toxicology172, 181−190.
Slotkin T. A., 2004, Cholinergic systems in brain development and disruption by neurotoxicants: nicotine, environmental tobacco smoke, organophosphates. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol
Roy T. S., 1998, Teratology, 58, 68
Garcia S. J., 2003, Developmental neurotoxicity elicited by prenatal or postnatal chlorpyrifos exposure: effects on neurospecific proteins indicate changing vulnerabilities. Environ. Health Perspect. 111, 297−303
Aldridge J. E., 2003, Serotonergic systems targeted by developmental exposure to chlorpyrifos: effects during different critical periods. Environ. Health Perspect. 111, 1736−1743
Terry A. V., Jr., 2003, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 305
Jett D. A., 2000, vitro and in vivo effects of chlorpyrifos on glutathione peroxidase and catalase in developing rat brain. Neurotoxicology 21, 141−146
Gordon C. J., 1996, Pharmacological analysis of diisopropyl fluorophosphate: effects on core temperature, heart rate, and motor activity in the unrestrained rat. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 55, 185−194
Gupta, R. C., Milatovic, D., and Dettbarn, W.D. (2002) Involvement of nitric oxide in myotoxicity produced by diisopropylphosphorofluoridate (DFP)-induced muscle hyperactivity.Arch. Toxicol.76, 715−726.
Galloway T., 2003, Immunotoxicity of organophosphorous pesticides. Ecotoxicology 12, 345−363
Krieger R. I., 2001, Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology, 1, 2
Krieger R. I., 2001, Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology, 2, 2
Mileson B. E., 1998, Toxicol. Sci., 41, 20
Abbreviations, acetylcholine