Opium trade and the spread of HIV in the Golden Crescent

Salman Farooq1, Mohammad Hafiz Rasooly2, Syed Hani Abidi1, Kayvon Modjarrad3, Syed Ali4
1Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan
2Afghanistan National Public Health Institute, Ministry of Health, Kabul, Afghanistan
3US Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, USA
4Department of Biomedical Sciences, Nazarbayev School of Medicine, Nazarbayev University, Astana, Kazakhstan

Tóm tắt

Từ khóa


Tài liệu tham khảo

Parviz S, Fatmi Z, Altaf A, McCormick JB, Fischer-Hoch S, Rahbar M, et al. Background demographics and risk behaviors of injecting drug users in Karachi, Pakistan. Int J Infect Dis. 2006;10:364–71.

Chouvy P-A. Opium: uncovering the politics of the poppy. New York: IB Tauris; 2009.

Steinberg J. The Golden Crescent heroin connection 1995 Available from: http://www.larouchepub.com/other/1995/2241_golden_crescent.html . Accessed 1 July 2017.

Fuller T. Notorious Golden Triangle loses sway in the opium trade. New York: The New York Times; 2007.

Todd CS, Nasir A, Stanekzai M, Fiekart K, Rasuli M, Vlahov D, et al. Prevalence and correlates of HIV, syphilis, and hepatitis B and C infection and harm reduction program use among male injecting drug users in Kabul, Afghanistan: A cross-sectional assessment. Harm Reduct J. 2011;8:22.

World drug report—illicit opiate market. Vienna: UNODC; 2013. https://www.unodc.org/unodc/secured/wdr/wdr2013/World_Drug_Report_2013.pdf . Accessed 1 July 2017.

Demirbuken H, Mili H, Townsend J. Addiction, crime, and insurgency—the transnational threat of Afghan opium. Vienna: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2009. https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/Afghanistan/Afghan_Opium_Trade_2009_web.pdf .

Rubin BR, Sherman J. Counter-narcotics to stabilize Afghanistan: the false promise of Crop eradication. New York: Center on International Cooperation - New York University; 2008. p. 21.

DSM-V. substance use disorders. Virginia: National Alliance on Mental Illness. 2013. http://www.namipasco.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/Substance-Use-Disorder_Factsheet.pdf . Accessed 3 July 2017.

Cheng G, Zeng H, Leung M-K, Zhang H-J, Lau B, Liu Y-P, et al. Heroin abuse accelerates biological aging: a novel insight from telomerase and brain imaging interaction. Transl Psychiatry. 2013;3(e260):2158–3188.

Smyth B, Hoffman V, Fan J, Hser Y-I. Years of potential life lost among heroin addicts 33 years after treatment. Prev Med. 2007;44(4):369–74.

Kuo I, Hasan S, Galai N, Thomas D, Zafar T, Ahmed MA, et al. High HCV seroprevalence and HIV drug use risk behaviours among injection drug users in Pakistan. Harm Reduct J. 2006;3:26.

Ministry of Counter Narcotics, Ministry of Public Health, UNODC (Kabul), UNODC (Vienna). Vienna: UNODC. 2009. p. 5. https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/Studies/Afghan-Drug-Survey-2009-Executive-Summary-web.pdf .

Vick K. Opiates of the Iranian people. Washington DC: The Washington Post. 2005. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/09/22/AR2005092202287.html . Accessed 1 July 2017.

Drug abuse scenario: anti narcotics force—govt. of Pakistan; 2015 [Available from: http://www.anf.gov.pk/ddr_drug_abuse.php . Accessed 1 July 2017.

UNODC. World Drug Report (United Nations Publication, Sales No. E.10.XI.13). Vienna: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2010. https://www.unodc.org/documents/wdr/WDR_2010/World_Drug_Report_2010_lo-res.pdf . Accessed 3 July 2017.

National AIDS Control Program, Ministry of Inter-Provincial Coordination. 2012. http://files.unaids.org/en/dataanalysis/knowyourresponse/countryprogressreports/2012countries/ce_PK_Narrative_Report[1].pdf . Accessed 3 July 2017.

Khajehkazemi R, Osooli M, Sajadi L, Karamouzian M, Sedaghat A, Fahimfar N, et al. HIV prevalence and risk behaviours among people who inject drugs in Iran: the 2010 National Surveillance Survey. Sex Transm Infect. 2013;89:iii29–32.

Khanani M, Ansari A, Khan S, Somani M, Kazmi S, Ali SH. Concentrated epidemics of HIV, HCV, and HBV among Afghan refugees. J Infect Dis. 2010;61:434–7.

Abdulbaqi M. Madrassah in Afghanistan: evolution and its future. Policy Perspectives, Special Issue Afghanistan. Islamabad: Institute of Policy Studies. 2008. http://www.ips.org.pk/the-muslim-world/989-madrassah-in-afghanistan-evolution-and-its-future.html . Accessed 3 July 2017.

Pakistan: Madrasas, extremism and the military. International Crisis Group Report. Islamabad/Brussels 2002. p. 9. https://d2071andvip0wj.cloudfront.net/36-pakistan-madrasas-extremism-and-the-military.pdf . Accessed 3 July 2017.

Rubin M. Who is responsible for the Taliban? Middle East Rev Int Aff. 2002;6:1.

Katzman K. Afghanistan: post-Taliban governance, security, and U.S. policy. In: Service UCR, editor. Washington DC: The Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service; 2010.

Graham Farrell JT. Where have all the flowers gone?: evaluation of the Taliban crackdown against opium poppy cultivation. Int J Drug Policy. 2005;16(2):81–91.

Drier and more desperate. London: The Economist. 2000. http://www.economist.com/node/343200 .

Afghanistan’s opium fiends. London: The Economist. 2001. http://www.economist.com/node/511577 .

UNODC. World drug report—executive summary. New York: UNODC; 2015. p. 17.

Maguet O, Majeed M. Implementing harm reduction for heroin users in Afghanistan, the worldwide opium supplier. Int J Drug Policy. 2010;21(2):119–21.

Abidi S, Ali F, Shah F, Abbas F, Ali S. Burden of communicable disease among the native and repatriating Afghans. Plos Pathog. 2012;8:10.

Friedman J, Velenyi E. HIV and AIDS in South Asia. Chapter 2—responding to HIV in Afghanistan. Washington, DC: The World Bank; 2009.

NACP. Country progress report—Afghanistan. Geneva: The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS. 2014. p. 12.

UNODC project to help Afghan drug users goes into action [Available from: https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/hiv-aids/unodc-project-to-help-afghan-drug-users-goes-into-action.html . Accessed 1 July 2017.

Mathers M, Degenhardt L, Phillips B, Wiessing L, Hickman M, Strathdee SA, et al. Global epidemiology of injecting drug use and HIV among people who inject drugs: a systematic review. Lancet. 2008;372(9651):1733–45.

Bazger F, Young A. Survey of groups at high risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections and HIV/AIDS in Kabul. Korbach: Ora International; 2005.

UNAIDS Afghanistan - HIV & AIDS estimates 2013 [Available from: http://www.unaids.org/en/regionscountries/countries/afghanistan . Accessed 1 July 2017.

Ministry of Public Health Director General of Preventive Medicine and Primary Health Care Communicable Disease Directorate (CDC). Geneva: Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS; 2012.

UNGASS Country Progress Report Afghanistan. In: Health P, editor. Ministry of Public Health: Kabul; 2010.

Rajabali A, Moin O, Ansari A, Khanani M, Ali S. Communicable disease among displaced Afghans: refuge without shelter. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2009;7(8):609–14.

Colville R. Afghanistan: the unending crisis—the biggest caseload in the world. Refugees Magazine. Geneva: The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees; 1997.

UNHCR regional plan—building resilience and solutions for Afghan refugees in South-West Asia. Geneva: UNHCR; 2017.

Tanaka Y, Kunii O, Hatano T, Wakai S. Knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP) of HIV prevention and HIV infection risks among Congolese refugees in Tanzania. Health Place. 2008;14(3):434–52.

Kukis M. Pakistan’s sex trade draws Afghan refugees 2001 [Available from: http://www.upi.com/Business_News/Security-Industry/2001/11/17/Pakistans-sex-trade-draws-Afghan-refugees/36701006037223/ . Accessed 1 July 2017.

Hankins C, Friedman S, Zafar T, Strathdee SA. Transmission and prevention of HIV and sexually transmitted infections in war settings: implications for current and future conflicts. AIDS. 2002;16(17):2245–52.

Zafar T, Brahmbhatt H, Imam G, Hassan S, Strathdee SA. HIV knowledge and risk behaviors among Pakistani and Afghani drug users in Quetta, Pakistan. JAIDS. 2003;32:394–8.

The International Conference. The solutions strategy for Afghan refugees to support voluntary repatriation, sustainable reintegration and assistance to host countries. Geneva: UNHCR; 2012.

UNHCR. The 2015 Afghanistan refugee and returnee overview. Geneva: The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees; 2015.

Ansari A, Khanani M, Abidi S, Shah F, Shahid A, Ali SH. Patterns of HIV infection among native and refugee Afghans. AIDS. 2011;25:1427–30.

Jozaghi E, Asadullah M, Dahya A. The role of Muslim faith-based programs in transforming the lives of people suffering with mental health and addiction problems. J Subst Use. 2015;21(6):587–93.

Marshall G, Schell T, Elliot M, Berthold S, Chun C-A. Mental health of Cambodian refugees 2 decades after resettlement in the United States. JAMA. 2005;294(5):571–9.

Priebe S, Bogic M, Ajdukovic D, Franciskovic T, Galeazzi G, Kucukalic A, et al. Mental disorders following war in the Balkans—a study in 5 countries. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2010;67(5):518–28.

Masud MK. A Critical Report on Hudood Ordinance 1979. Pakistan: Council of Islamic Ideology publication. 2007. http://cii.gov.pk/publications/h.report.pdf .

Murphy J. Implementation of international narcotics control: the struggle against opium cultivation in Pakistan. Boston College International and Comparative Law. 1983;6(1):199–241.

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime; and Ministry of Interior and Narcotics Control. Pakistan. https://www.unodc.org/documents/pakistan/Survey_Report_Final_2013.pdf .

Malik A, Sarfaraz SF. Origin and development of drug addiction in South Asia with special reference to Pakistan. Pak J Commerce Soc Sci. 2011;5(1):155–65.

Islamic Republic of Pakistan—Drug Situation Analysis Report. Paris: Paris Pact Initiative. 2011. p. 13.

Drug abuse control master plan. In: Force MoNCAN, editor. Islamabad: Ministry of Narcotics Control/Anti-Narcotics Force, Government of Pakistan. 2010. p. 8.

Abu-Raddad L, Chemaitelly H, Mumtaz G. A regional picture: MENA’s HIV map 2013 [Available from: http://www.natureasia.com/en/nmiddleeast/article/ 10.1038/nmiddleeast.2013.229

Raees M, Abidi S, Ali W, Khanani M, Ali SH. HIV among women and children in Pakistan. Trends Microbiol. 2013;21(5):213–4.

Khan S, Rai MA, Khanani MR, Khan MN, Ali SH. HIV-1 subtype A infection in a community of intravenous drug users in Pakistan. BMC Infect Dis. 2006;6:164.

Rai MA, Nerukar V, Khoja S, Khan S, Yanagihara R, Rehman A, et al. Evidence for a “founder effect” among HIV-infected injection drug users (IDU) in Pakistan. BMC Infectious Diseases. 2010;10:7.

Khan AA, Awan AB, Qureshi SU, Razaque A, Zafar ST. Large sharing networks and unusual injection practices explain the rapid rise in HIV among IDUs in Sargodha, Pakistan. Pakistan. Harm Reduct. 2009;6:13.

Pakistan Global AIDS Response Progress Report (GARPR) 2015. Islamabad: Ministry of National Health Services, Regulation and Coordination. 2015. http://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/country/documents/PAK_narrative_report_2015.pdf .

Khanani M, Somani M, Rehmani S, Veras N, Salemi M, Ali SH. The spread of HIV in Pakistan: bridging of the epidemic between populations. Plos One. 2011;6(7):e22449.

International Narcotics Control Strategy Report - Volume I drug and chemical control In: Department of State UoA, editor. Department of State, United States of America. 2009. p. 338.

Zarghami M, 2. Iranian common attitude toward opium consumption. Iran J Psychiatry Behav Sci. 2015;9(2):e2074.

Reid G, Costigan G. Revisiting ‘the hidden epidemic:’ a situation assessment of drug use in Asia in the context of HIV/AIDS. Australia: The Centre for Harm Reduction, The Burnet Institute; 2002.

Gallahue P, Lines R. The death penalty for drug offences, 2010. Iran: High Commitment States; 2010. p. 22.

United Nations Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention. Global illicit drug trends. Vienna. 2002. p. 37. https://www.unodc.org/pdf/report_2002-06-26_1/report_2002-06-26_1.pdf . Accessed 3 July 2017.

BBC - On this day 1950–2005 2005 [Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/september/22/newsid_4242000/4242336.stm . Accessed 1 July 2017.

Calabrese J. Iran’s war on drugs: holding the line?. Washington DC: the Middle East Institute; 2007.

International Narcotics Control Strategy Report 1996 - South West Asia (Iran). Washington DC: Department of State, United States of America. 1997. https://www.state.gov/www/global/narcotics_law/1996_narc_report/swasi96.html .

United Nations Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention. Vienna. https://www.unodc.org/pdf/report_2001-06-26_1/report_2001-06-26_1.pdf . Accessed 1 July 2017.

Counter Narcotics Directorate, Afghanistan and United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Vienna. https://www.unodc.org/documents/crop-monitoring/Afghanistan/AFGopiumsurvey04_web.pdf . Accessed 3 July 2017.

Alavi S, Mehrdad R, Makarem J. Prevalence of substance abuse/alcohol consumption and their predictors among patients admitted in operating rooms of a General Educational Hospital, Tehran, Iran. Asian J Pharm Res Health Care. 2016;8(1):63–71.

Nikfarjam A, Shokoohi M, Shahesmaeili A, Haghdoost A, Baneshi M, Haji-Maghsoudi S, et al. National population size estimation of illicit drug users through the network scale-up method in 2013 in Iran. Int J Drug Policy. 2016;31:147–52.

Hodes C, Sedra M. Chapter Three: The Opium Trade, The Adelphi Papers. 2007;47(391):35–42.

McCoy A. The stimulus of prohibition: a critical history of the global narcotics trade. In: Steinberg MK, Hobbs J, J, Mathewson K, editors. Dangerous Harvest: Drug Plants and the Transformation of Indigenous Landscapes. USA: Oxford University Press; 2003. p. 75.

International Narcotics Control Strategy Report. Country report—Iran. In: State UDo, editor, Department of State, United States of America; 2012.

Etebari M. Out of the shadows: Iran’s evolving approach to drug addiction. Florida: World Politics Review; 2014.

Nissaramanesh B, Trace M, Roberts M. The rise of harm reduction in the Islamic Republic of Iran. UK: The Beckley Foundation Drug Policy programme; 2005.

Alam mehrjerdi Z, Noori R, Dolan K. Opioid use, treatment and harm reduction services: the first report from the Persian Gulf region. J Subst Use. 2014;21(2):1–7.

Bin Shaikh Mohd Salleh SMS, Kamarulzaman A. Implementation of an Islamic approach to harm reduction among illicit drug users in Malaysia. In: Kamali M, Bakar O, Batchelor D, Hashim R, editors. Islamic perspectives on science and technology. Singapore: Springer; 2016. p. 269–74.

Islamic Republic of Iran AIDS Progress Report. On monitoring of the UNGASS on HIV & AIDS 2014.

Razzaghi E, Movaghar A, Green T, Khoshnood K. Profiles of risk: a qualitative study of injecting drg users in Tehran. Harm Reduction Journal. 2006;3:12.

Sajadi L, Mirzazadeh A, Navadeh S, Osooli M, Khajehkazemi R, Gouya M, et al. HIV prevalence and related risk behaviours among female sex workers in Iran: results of the national biobehavioural survey, 2010. Sex Transm Infect. 2013;89:iii37–40.

Navadeh S, Mirzazadeh A, Gouya M, Farnia M, Alasvand R, Haghdoost A. HIV prevalence and related risk behaviours among prisoners in Iran: results of the national biobehavioural survey, 2009. Sex Transm Infect. 2013;89:iii33–6.

Davoodian P, Dadvand H, Mahoori K, Amoozandeh A, Salavati A. Prevalence of selected sexually and blood-borne infections in injecting drug abuser inmates of Bandar Abbas and Roodan Correction Facilities, Iran, 2002. Braz J Infect Dis. 2009;13(5):356–8.

Mumtaz G, Hilmi N, McFarland W, Kaplan R, Akala F, Semini I, et al. Are HIV epidemics among men who have sex with men emerging in the Middle East and North Africa?: a systematic review and data synthesis. Plos Med. 2011;8(8):e1000444.

UNODC - The international drug control conventions. New York: United Nations; 2013.

Ali R. For Sindh’s drug users, Chicago-born priest built a ‘village of hope’ 2012 [Available from: http://tribune.com.pk/story/424035/for-sindhs-drug-users-chicago-born-priest-built-a-village-of-hope/ . Accessed 1 July 2017.

Batki SL, Sorensen JL. Care of injection drug users with HIV—treatment for substance use disorders 1998 [Available from: http://hivinsite.ucsf.edu/InSite?page=kb-00&doc=kb-03-03-06 . Accessed 1 July 2017.

Alammehrjerdi Z, Abdollahi M, Higgs P, Dolan K. Drug use treatment and harm reduction programs in Iran: a unique model of health in the most populated Persian Gulf country. Asian J Psychiatr. 2015;16:78–83.

Iran tries to abolish death penalty for trafficking as it wrestles with rising drug charges Radio Zamaneh2017 [Available from: http://www.payvand.com/news/17/apr/1117.html . Accessed 1 July 2017.

Ghiabi M. Drug laws: Iran takes steps towards legalising cannabis 2015 [Available from: http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/drugs-laws-iran-takes-steps-towards-legalising-cannabis-marijuana-a6709176.html . Accessed 1 July 2017.

Todd CS, MacDonald D, Khoshnood K, Mansoor G, Eggerman M, Panter-Brick C. Opiate use, treatment, and harm reduction in Afghanistan: recent changes and future directions. Int J Drug Policy. 2012;23:341–5.

UNODC. Afghanistan drug report. Vienna: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2013. p. 61.

Organization for Harm Reduction in Afghanistan (OHRA). Areas of expertise 2015 [Available from: http://preventionhub.org/en/who-is-who/organization-harm-reduction-afghanistan-ohra . Accessed 1 July 2017.

Dolan K, MacDonald M, Silins E, Topp L. Needle and syringe programs: A review of the evidence. In: Ageing DoHa, editor. Canberra: Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing. 2005.

McConnon A. A Start-Up Turns to Saffron to Help Afghanistan Regrow. The New York Times. 2016. [Available from: https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/11/business/smallbusiness/a-start-up-turns-to-saffron-to-help-afghanistan-regrow.html . Accessed 1 July 2017.

Simmons A. Opium cultivation in Afghanistan: a policy proposal based on lessons from Turkey and China Budapest. Hungary: Central European University; 2014.

World Summit for Social Development. Social impact of drug abuse. Copenhagen: UNODC; 1995.

Abidi S, Raees M, Ali SH. How Pakistan’s media spreads the message about reproductive and sexual health. BMJ. 2015;350:h1309.

Qarizadah D, Najafizade H. Afghanistan: can pomegranates power the economy? 2014 [Available from: http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-30246121 . Accessed 1 July 2017.

UNODC. World Drug Report (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.13.XI.6). Vienna: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime; 2013.

Scott PD. Can the US triumph in the drug-addicted war in Afghanistan? Opium, the CIA and the Karzai administration. Asia Pac J. 2010;8(14):5.

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime; and Ministry of Counter-Narcotics, Afghanistan. 2014. https://www.unodc.org/documents/crop-monitoring/Afghanistan/Afghan-opium-survey-2014.pdf . Accessed 3 July 2017.

The poppies bloom again. London: The Economist. 2002. http://www.economist.com/node/1091500 .

The Economist - Sadeq Khalkhali. Sadeq Khalkhali, Iran’s “hanging judge,” died on November 26th, aged 772003. London: The Economist. http://www.economist.com/node/2282169 .

Islamic Republic of Pakistan—Drug Situation Analysis Report. Paris: Paris Pact Initiative; 2010. p. 14–5.

Examining the dimensions, scale, and dynamics of the illegal economy: a study of Pakistan in the region. Islamabad: Sustainable Development Policy Institute; 2011. p. 24.

Implementation, completion and results report for the HIV/AIDS prevention project. Washington DC: World Bank; 2010. p. 55.

World situation with regard to drug trafficking. United Nations - Economic and Social Council. New York: United Nations. 2013. https://www.unngls.org/IMG/pdf/World_situation_with_regard_to_drug_trafficking.pdf . Accessed 3 July 2017.

UNODC, World Drug Report (United Nations publication, Sales No.E.09.XI.12). Vienna: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime; 2009. p. 41.