Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis) Biomass in Malaysia: The Present and Future Prospects

Waste and Biomass Valorization - Tập 10 - Trang 2099-2117 - 2018
Emmanuel Onoja1,2, Sheela Chandren1, Fazira Ilyana Abdul Razak1, Naji Arafat Mahat1, Roswanira Abdul Wahab1
1Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia
2Department of Science Laboratory Technology, The Federal Polytechnic, Kaura Namoda, Nigeria

Tóm tắt

Oil palm industry is the largest contributor of biomass in Malaysia. Oil palm biomass are constantly generated in large quantities annually with a small fraction being converted into value added product while a large percentage are left underutilized. Several researchers have reported the various technologies available for the conversion of oil palm biomass into useful bio-products, including bio-fuel, biogas, bio-fertilizers, bio-composite and briquettes. In general, these technologies are either underutilized or inadequate for full conversion of these abundantly available biomass, hence, there is an urgent need for upgrading of such technologies. This review article highlights the availability of oil palm biomass in Malaysia, the chemical compositions, as well as a brief description of current technologies for converting oil palm biomass into value added products. The review also outlines a summary of the various products obtained from oil palm biomass. Steps to achieve maximum utilization of biomass from oil palm industry are also proposed.

Tài liệu tham khảo

McKendry, P.: Energy production from biomass (part1): overview of biomass. Bioresour. Technol. 83, 37–46 (2002) Hosseini, S.E., Wahid, M.A.: Utilization of palm solid residue as a source of renewable and sustainable energy in Malaysia. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 40, 621–632 (2014) Awalludin, M.F., Othman, S., Rokiah, H., Wan, N.A., Wan, N.: An overview of the oil palm industry in Malaysia and its waste utilization through thermochemical conversion, specifically via liquefaction. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 50, 1469–1484 (2015) Demirbaş, A.: Effect of lignin content on aqueous liquefaction products of biomass. Energy Convers. Manag. 41, 1601–1607 (2000) Akhtar, J., Amin, N.A.S.: A review on process conditions for optimum bio-oil yield in hydrothermal liquefaction of biomass. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 15, 1615–1624 (2011) Abbasi, T., Abbasi, S.A.: Biomass energy and the environmental impact associated with its production and utilization. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 14, 919–937 (2010) Borjesson, P.I.I.: Energy analysis of biomass production and transportation. Biomass Bioenergy 11, 305–318 (1996) Evans, A., Strezov, V., Evans, T.J.: Sustainability considerations for electricity generation from biomass. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 14, 1419–1427 (2010) de Wit M., Junginger, M., Faaij, A.: Learning in dedicated wood production systems: past trends, future outlook and implications for bioenergy. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 19, 417–432 (2013) Raslavicius, L., Kucinskas, V., Jasinskas, A.: The prospects of energy forestry and agro-residues in the Lithuania’s domestic energy supply. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 22, 419–431 (2013) Singh, R., Setiawan, A.D.: Biomass energy policies and strategies: harvesting potential in India and Indonesia. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 22, 332–345 (2013) Laurent, A., Pelzer, E., Loyce, C., Makowski, D.: Ranking yields of energy crops: a meta-analysis using direct and indirect comparisons. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 46, 41–50 (2015) Saidur, R., Abdelaziz, E.A., Demirbas, A., Hossain, M.S., Mekhilef, S.: A review on biomass as a fuel for boilers. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 15, 2262–2289 (2011) Larry, D.C.: The history, genotoxicity and carcinogenicity of carbon-based fuels and their emissions: part 4—alternative fuels. Mutat Res 763, 86–102 (2015) Kwietniewska, E., Tys, J.: Process, characteristics, inhibition factors and methane yields of anaerobic digestion process, with particular focus on micro-algal biomass fermentation. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 34, 491–500 (2014) Yaman, S.: Pyrolysis of biomass to produce fuels and chemical feedstocks. Energy Convers. Manag. 45, 651–671 (2004) Demirbas, A.: Combustion characteristics of different biomass fuels. Prog. Energy Combust. 30, 219–230 (2004) Larsen, S., Bruun, S., Lindedam, J.: Straw yield and saccharification potential for ethanol in cereal species and wheat cultivars. Biomass Bioenergy 45, 239–250 (2012) Begum, S., Kumaran, P., Jayakumar, M.: Use of oil palm waste as a renewable energy source and its impact on reduction of air pollution in context of Malaysia. Int. Conf. Energy Environ. (2013). https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/16/1/012026 Thornley, P., Paul, G., Simon, S., Jim, H.: Maximizing the greenhouse gas reductions from biomass. The role of life cycle assessment. Biomass Bioenergy 81, 35–43 (2015) Gilbert, P., Alexander, S., Thornley, P., Brammer, J.: Assessing economically viable carbon reductions for the production of ammonia from biomass gasification. J. Clean. Prod. 64, 581–589 (2014) Khan, A.A., Jonga, W.D., Jansens, P.J., Spliethoff, H.: Biomass combustion in fluidized bed boilers: potential problems and remedies. Fuel Process Technol. 90, 21–50 (2009) Abdul Khalil, H.P.S., Jawaid, M., Hassan, A., Paridah, M.T., Zaidon, A.: Oil Palm Biomass Fibres and Recent Advancement in Oil Palm Biomass Fibres Based Hybrid Biocomposites. Intech, Rijeka, (2012) Kurnia, J.C., Jangam, S.V., Akhtar, S., Sasmito, A.P., Mujumdar, A.S.: Advances in biofuel production from oil palm and palm oil processing wastes: a review. Biofuel Res. J. 3(28), 332–346 (2016) Uemura, Y., Omar, W.N., Tsutsui, T., Yusup, S.B.: Torrefaction of oil palm wastes. Fuel 90, 2585–2591 (2011) Samiran, N.A., Jaafar, M.N.M., Chong, C.T., Jo-Han, N.: A review of palm oil biomass as a feedstock for syngas fuel technology. J. Teknologi. Sci. Eng. 72, 13–18 (2015) Abdul Khalil, H.P.S., Bhat, A.H.: Oil palm biomass: fibre cultivation, production and its varied applications, In Penna, S. A. (ed.) Oil Palm: Cultivation, Production and Dietary Components, Nova Science Publisher, Inc., Hauppauge, pp. 21–34 (2010) Abdul Khalil, H.P.S., Kang, C.W., Khairul, A., Ridzuan, R., Adawi, T.O.: The effect of different laminations on mechanical and physical properties of hybrid composites. J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. 28(9), 1123–1137 (2009) Abdul Khalil, H.P.S., Poh, B.T., Issam, A.M., Jawaid, M., Ridzuan, R.: Recycled polypropylene-oil palm biomass: the effect on mechanical and physical properties. J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. 29(8), 1117–1130 (2010) Paterson, R.R., Moen, S., Lima, N.: The feasibility of producing oil palm with altered lignin content to control Ganoderma disease. J. Phytopathol. 157, 649–656 (2009) Nigam, P.S., Pandey, A.: Biotechnology for Agro-Industrial Residues Utilisation: Utilisation of Agro-Residues. Springer, New York (2009) Yaap, B., Struebig, M.J., Paoli, G., Koh, L.P.: Mitigating the biodiversity impacts of oil palm development. CAB Rev. 5, 1–11 (2010) Oviasogie, P., Aisueni, N., Brown, G.: Oil palm composted biomass a review of the preparation, utilization, handling and storage. Afr. J. Agric. Res. 5, 1553–1571 (2010) Mazaheri, H., Lee, K.T., Bhatia, S., Mohamed, A.R.: Sub/supercritical liquefaction of oil palm fruit press fiber for the production of bio-oil: effect of solvents. Bioresour. Technol. 101, 7641–7647 (2010) Rupani, P.F., Singh, R.P., Ibrahim, M.H., Esa, N.: Review of current palm oil mill effluent (POME) treatment methods: vermicomposting as a sustainable practice. World Appl. Sci. J. 11, 70–81 (2010) Mohammad, N., Alam, M.Z., Kabbashi, N.A., Ahsan, A.: Effective composting of oil palm industrial waste by filamentous fungi: a review. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 58, 69–78 (2012) Basiron, Y.: Palm oil production through sustainable plantations. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 109, 289–295 (2007) AIM, National Biomass Strategy 2020.: New wealth creation for Malaysia’s biomass industry: Version 2.0, 2013. Agensi Inovasi Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur (2015). Available at: http://etp.pemandu.gov.my/upload/Biomass_Strategy_2013.pdf Sulaiman, F., Abdullah, N., Gerhauser, H., Shariff, A.: A perspective of oil palm and its wastes. J. Phys. Sci. 21, 67–77 (2010) Abdullah, N., Sulaiman, F.: The Oil Palm Wastes in Malaysia, Intech, Rijeka (2013) MPOB, Economic & Industry Development Division.: Oil palm planted area. (2014). Available at: http://bepi.mpob.gov.my/index.php/statistics/area.html Abdullah, N., Sulaiman, F., Aliasak, Z.: A case study of pyrolysis of oil palm wastes in Malaysia. In: Proceedings of the 2012 National Physic Conference: (PERFIK 2012): AIP Publishing, Melville, pp. 331–336 (2013) Vakili, M., Rafatullah, M., Ibrahim, M.H., Salamatinia, B., Gholami, Z., Zwain, H.M.: A review on composting of oil palm biomass. Environ. Dev. Sustain. (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-014-9581-2 Abdul Khalil, H.P.S., Nurul-Fazita, M.R., Bhat, A.H., Jawaid, M., Nik-Fuad, N.A.: Development and material properties of new hybrid plywood from oil palm biomass. Mater. Des. 31(1), 417–424 (2010) Kelly-Yong, T.L., Lee, K.T., Mohamed, A.R., Bhatia, S.: Potential of hydrogen from oil palm biomass as a source of renewable energy worldwide. Energy Pol. 35, 5692–5701 (2007) Loh, S.K.: The potential of the Malaysian oil palm biomass as a renewable energy source. Energy Convers. Manag. (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2016.08.081 Chan, K.W., Watson, I., Lim, K.C.: Use of oil palm waste material for increased production. Planter 57, 14–37 (1981) Konga, S.H., Loh, S.K., Bachmann, R.T., Rahim, S.A., Salimon, J.: Biochar from oil palm biomass a review of its potential and challenges. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 39, 729–739 (2014) Hussain, Z., Zainac, Z., Abdullah, Z.: ‘Briquetting of palm fibre and shell from the processing of palm nuts to palm oil. Biomass Bioenergy 22, 505–509 (2002) Huybrechts, P., Kuhn, M., Lambeck, K., Nhuan, M.T., Qin, D., Woodworth, P.L.: Changes in sea level. In: Douglas, B.C., Ramirez, A. (eds.) Climate Change: The Scientific Basis, pp. 639–693. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2001) Wigley, T.M.L.: The climate change commitment. Science 307, 1766–1769 (2005) Rahman, A.A., Abdullah, N., Sulaiman, F.: Temperature effect on the characterization of pyrolysis products from oil palm fronds. Adv. Energy Eng. 2, 14–21 (2014) Koh, M.P., Hoi, W.K.: Sustainable biomass production for energy in Malaysia. Biomass Bioenergy 25, 517–529 (2003) Sasaki, N., Knorr, W., Foster, D.R., Etoh, H., Ninomiya, H., Chay, S.: Woody biomass and bioenergy potentials in Southeast Asia between 1990 and 2020. Appl. Energy 86, 140–150 (2009) Sheng, C., Azevedo, J.L.T.: Estimating the higher heating value of biomass fuels from basic analysis data. Biomass Bioenergy 28, 499–507 (2005) Yin, C.Y.: Prediction of higher heating values of biomass from proximate and ultimate analyses. Fuel 90, 1128–1132 (2011) Wan Ab Karim Ghani, W.A., Abdullah, M.S., Matori, K.A., Alias, A.B., da-Silva, G.: Physical and thermochemical characterization of Malaysian biomass ashes. J. Inst. Eng. 71, 9–17 (2010) Hamzah, M.M.: The production of ecofiber from palm oil empty fruit bunch (EFB), Diss. Universiti Malaysia Pahang (2008) Abnisa, F., Wan-Daud, W.M.A., Husin, W.N.W., Sahu, J.N.: Utilization possibilities of palm shell as a source of biomass energy in Malaysia by producing bio-oil in pyrolysis process. Biomass Bioenergy 35, 1863–1872 (2011) Idris, S.S., Abd-Rahman, N., Ismail, K.: Combustion characteristics of Malaysian oil palm biomass, sub-bituminous coal and their respective blends via thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Bioresour. Technol. 123, 581–591 (2012) Ninduangdee, P., Kuprianov, V.I.: Study on burning oil palm kernel shell in a conical fluidized-bed combustor using alumina as the bed material. J. Taiwan Ins. Chem. Eng. 44, 1045–1053 (2013) Ho, W.S., Khor, C.S., Hashim, H., Lim, J.S., Ashina, S., Herran, D.S.: Optimal operation of a distributed energy generation system for a sustainable palm oil-based eco-community. Clean Technol. Environ. 17, 1597–1617 (2015) Herbert, G.M.J., Krishnan, A.U.: Quantifying environmental performance of biomass energy. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 59, 292–308 (2016) Abnisa, F., Arami-Niya, A., Wan-Daud, W.M.A., Sahu, J.N., Noor, I.M.: Utilization of oil palm tree residues to produce bio-oil and bio-char via pyrolysis. Energy Convers. Manag. 76, 1073–1082 (2013) Joselin, H.G.M., Unni, K.A.: Quantifying environmental performance of biomass energy. Renew. Sust. Energy Rev. 59, 292–308 (2016) Sugumaran, P., Seshadri, S.: Evaluation of selected biomass for charcoal production. J. Sci. Ind. Res. 68, 719–723 (2009) Guangul, F.M., Sulaiman, S.A., Ramli, A.: Gasifier selection, design and gasification of oil palm fronds with preheated and unheated gasifying air. Bioresour. Technol. 126, 224–232 (2012) Mekbib, S., Anwar, S., Yusup, S.: Syngas production from downdraft gasification of oil palm fronds. Energy 61, 491–501 (2013) Hashim, R., Nadhari, W.N.A.W., Sulaiman, O., Kawamura, F., Hiziroglu, S., Sato, M., et al.: Characterization of raw materials and manufactured binderless particleboard from oil palm biomass. Mater. Des. 32, 246–254 (2011) Kristiani, A., Abimanyu, H., Setiawan Sudiyarmanto, A.H., Aulia, F.: Effect of pretreatment process by using diluted acid to characteristic of oil palm’s frond. Energy Procedia 32, 183–189 (2013) Theander, O.: In: Overand, R.P., Mile, T.A., Mudge, L.K. (eds.) Fundamentals of thermo-chemical biomass conversion, Elsevier Applied Science Publisher, New York (1985) Unal, H., Alibas, K.: Agricultural residues as biomass energy. Energy Source Part B 2, 123–140 (2007) Demirbas, A.: Recent progress in biorenewable feedstock. Energy Educ. Sci. Technol. 22, 69–95 (2008) Balat, M.: Mechanisms of thermochemical biomass conversion processes. Part 1. Reactions of pyrolysis. Energy Source Part A 30, 620–635 (2008) Harmsen, P.F.H., Huijgen, W., Bermudez, L., Bakker, R.: Literature Review of Physical and Chemical Pretreatment Processes for Lignocellulosic Biomass, Wageningen UR Food & Biobased Research, Wageningen (2010) Carrier, M., Loppinet-serani, A., Aymonier, C.: Thermogravimetric analysis as a new method to determine the lignocellulosic composition of biomass. Biomass Bioenergy 35, 298–307 (2011) Mohan, D., Pittman, C.U., Steele, P.H.: Pyrolysis of wood/biomass for bio-oil: a critical review. Energy & Fuels 20, 848–889 (2006) Chaikitkaew, S., Kongjan, P., Thong, S.O., Biogas production from biomass residues of palm oil mill by solid state anaerobic, digestion. Energy Procedia 79, 838–844 (2015) Elias, N., Chandren, S., Attan, N., Mahat, N.A., Abdul-Razak, F.I., Jamalis, J., Wahab, R.A.: Structure and properties of oil palm-based nanocellulose reinforced chitosan nanocomposite for efficient synthesis of butyl butyrate. Carbohyd. Polym. 176, 281–292 (2017) Abdul Khalil, H.P.S., Nurul Fazita, M.R., Jawaid, M., Bhat, A.H., Abdullah, C.K.: Empty fruit bunches as a reinforcement in laminated bio-composites. J. Compos Mater. 45(2), 219–236 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998310373520 Sreekala, M.S., Jayamol, G., Sabu, T.: Water-sorption kinetics in oil palm fibers. J. Polym. Sci. Part B 39, 1215–1223 (2001) Myrtha, K., Holia, O., Abdullah, D.A.H., Anung, S.: Effect of oil palm empty fruit bunch fiber on the physical and mechanical properties of fiber glass reinforced polyester resin. J. Biol. Sci. 8(1), 101–106 (2008) Firoozian, P., Bhat, I.H., Abdul Khalil, H.P.S., Noor, A.M., Akil, H.M., Bhat, A.H.: High surface area activated carbon prepared from agricultural biomass: empty fruit bunch (EFB), bamboo stem and coconut shells by chemical activation with H3PO4. Mater. Technol. Adv. Perform. Mater. 26(5), 222–228 (2011) Kormin, S., Rus, A.Z.M., Azahari, M.S.M.: Preparation of polyurethane foams using liquefied oil palm mesocarp fibre (OPMF) and renewable monomer from waste cooking oil, 4th International Conference on the Advancement of Materials and Nanotechnology (ICAMN IV 2016), AIP Conf. Proc. 1877, 060006-1-060006-7; https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4999885 Mayulu, H.: The Nutrient potency of palm oil plantation and Mill’s by-product processed with amofer technology as ruminant feed. Int J. Sci. Eng. 6(2), 112–116 (2014) Chaiyaomporn, K., Chavalparit, O.: Fuel pellets production from biodiesel waste. Environ. Asia 3, 103–110 (2010) Daud, W.R.W., Law, K.N.: Oil palm fibers as papermaking material: potentials and challenges. BioResources 6, 901–917 (2010) Mulakhudair, A.R., Hanotu, J., Zimmerman, W.: Exploiting microbubble-microbe synergy for biomass processing: Application in lignocellulosic biomass pretreatment. Biomass Bioenergy 93, 187–193 (2016) Pei-dong, Z., Guomei, J., Gang, W.: Contribution to emission reduction of CO2 and SO2 by household biogas construction in rural China. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 11, 1903–1912 (2007) Sulaiman, O., Hashim, R., Wahab, R., Samsi, H.W., Mohamed, A.H.: Evaluation on some finishing properties of oil palm plywood. Holz Roh Werkst 66, 5–10 (2008) Nordin, K., Jamaludin, M.A., Ahmad, M., Samsi, H.W., Salleh, A.H., Jallaludin, Z.: Minimizing the environmental burden of oil palm trunk residues trough the development of laminated veneer lumber products. Manag. Environ. Qual. 15, 484–490 (2004) Hashim, R., Nadhari, W.N.A.W., Sulaiman, O., Sato, M., Hiziroglu, S., Kawamura, F., Sugimoto, T., Seng, T.G., Tanaka, R.: Properties of binderless particleboard panels manufactured from oil palm biomass. BioResources 7, 1352–1365 (2012) Wanrosli, W.D., Mazlan, I., Law, K.N., Nasrullah, R.: Influences of the operating variables of acetosolv pulping on pulp properties of oil palm frond fibers. Maderas. Ciencia y Tecnología 13(2), 193–202 (2011). https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-221X2011000200007 Thornley, P., Upham, P., Huang, Y., Rezvani, S., Brammer, J., Rogers, J.: Integrated assessment of bioelectricity technology options. Energy Pol. 37, 890–903 (2009) Ahmadzadeh, A., Zakaria, S., Rashid, R.: Liquefaction of oil palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) into phenol and characterization of phenolated EFB resin. Ind. Crops Prod. 30, 54–58 (2009) Ghazali, A., Wanrosli, W.D., Law, K.N.: Alkaline peroxide mechanical pulping (APMP) of oil palm lignocellulosics: part 2 Empty fruit bunch (EFB) responses to pretreatments. Appita J. 59, 65–70 (2006) John, E., White, W., Catallo, J., Legendre, B.L.: Biomass pyrolysis kinetics: a comparative critical review with relevant agricultural residue case studies. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrol. 91, 1–33 (2011) Sivasangar, S., Zainal, Z., Salmiaton, A., Taufiq-Yap, Y.: Supercritical water gasification of empty fruit bunches from oil palm for hydrogen production. Fuel 143, 563–569 (2015) Sumanthi, S., Chai, S.P., Mohamed, A.R.: Utilization of oil palm as a source of renewable energy in Malaysia. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 12, 2404–2421 (2008) Nasrin, A.B., Ma, A.N., Choo, Y.M., Mohamad, S., Rohaya, M.H., Azali, A., et al.: Oil palm biomass as potential substitution raw materials for commercial biomass briquettes production. Am. J. Appl. Sci. 5, 179–183 (2008) Bernama. Biochar Malaysia: UPM-NASMECH effect of producing EFB Biochar: world’s first.7 January 2010. http://biocharmalaysia.blogspot.com/2010/01/upm- nasmech-effort-of-producing-efb.html, (Accessed 4 April 2011) Azali, A., Nasrin, A.B., Choo, Y.M., Adam, N.M., Sapuan, S.M.: Development of gasification system fuelled with oil palm fibres and shells. Am. J. Appl. Sci. 72–75 (2005) Shuit, S.H., Tan, K.T., Lee, K.T., Kamaruddin, A.H.: Oil palm biomass as a sustainable energy source: Malaysian case study. Energy 34, 1225–1235 (2009) Salema, A.A., Ani, F.N.: Microwave induced pyrolysis of oil palm biomass. Bioresour. Technol. 102, 3388–3395 (2011) Nomanbhay, S.M., Palanisamy, K.: Removal of heavy metal from industrial wastewater using chitosan coated oil palm shell charcoal. Electron. J. Biotechnol. 8, 44–53 (2005) Tan, J., Ani, F.: Carbon molecular sieves produced from oil palm shell for air separation. Sep. Purif. Technol. 35, 47–54 (2004) Ahmad, M., Wan-Daud, W., Aroua, M.: Synthesis of carbon molecular sieves from palm shell by carbon vapor deposition. J. Porous Matter. 14, 393–399 (2007) Daud, W., Ahmad, M., Aroua, M.: Carbon molecular sieves from palm shell: effect of the benzene deposition times on gas separation properties. Sep. Purif. Technol. 57, 289–293 (2007) Ahmad, M., Wan-Daud, W., Aroua, M.: Adsorption kinetics of various gases in carbon molecular sieves (CMS) produced from palm shell. Colloids Surf. A 312, 131–135 (2008) Kim, S.W., Koo, B.S., Lee, D.H.: Catalytic pyrolysis of palm kernel shell waste in a fluidized bed. Bioresour. Technol. 167, 425–432 (2014) Esther, O.U.: Anaerobic digestion of palm oil mill effluent and its utilization as fertilizer for environmental protection. Renew. Energy 10, 291–294 (1997) Fakhru’l-Razi, A., Yassin, A.A.A., Lyuke, S.E., Ngan, M.A., Morimoto, M.: Bio-hydrogen synthesis from wastewater by anaerobic fermentation using microflora. Int. J. Green Energy 2, 387–396 (2005) Kow, K.W., Mun, L.Y., Yusoff, R.: Silica gel synthesized from oil palm boiler ash. J. Miner. Met. Mater. Eng. 1, 14–18 (2015) Haron, K., Mohammed, A.T., Halim, R.M., Din, A.K.: Palm-based bio-fertilizer from decanter cake and boiler ash of palm oil mill. Inf. Ser. (MPOB TT No. 412), 1–4 (2008) Tangchirapat, W., Jaturapitakkul, C., Chindaprasirt, P.: Use of palm oil fuel ash as a supplementary cementitious material for producing high-strength concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 23, 2641–2646 (2009) Mohamed, A.R., Lee, K.T., Noor, N.M., Zainudin, N.F.: Oil palm ash/Ca (OH)2/CaSO4 absorbent for flue gas desulfucrization. Chem. Eng. Technol. 28, 939–945 (2005) Isa, M.H., Lang, L.S., Asaari, F.A.H., Aziz, H.A., Ramli, N.A., Dhas, J.P.A.: Low cost removal of disperse dyes from aqueous solution using palm ash. Dyes Pigm. 74, 446–453 (2007) Isa, M.H., Ibrahim, N., Aziz, H.A., Adlan, M.N., Sabiani, N.H.M., Zinatizadeh, A.A.L., et al.: Removal of chromium (VI) from aqueous solution using treated oil palm fibre. J. Hazard. Mater. 152, 662–668 (2008) Bhat, A.H., Khalil, H.A.: Exploring, nano filler based on oil palm ash in polypropylene composites. BioResources 6, 1288–1297 (2011) Ooi, Z.X., Ismail, H., Abu-Bakar, A.: Optimisation of oil palm ash as reinforcement in natural rubber vulcanisation: a comparison between silica and carbon black fillers. Polym. Test. 32, 625–630 (2013) Sensoz, S., Can, M.,, Part, A., Recovery: Pyrolysis of pine (Pinus Brutia Ten.) chips: effect of pyrolysis temperatures and heating rate on the product yields. Energy Sources 24, 347–355 (2002) Idris, S.S., Rahman, N.A., Ismail, K., Alias, A.B., Rashid, Z.A., Aris, M.J.: Investigation on thermochemical behaviour of low rank Malaysian coal, oil palm biomass and their blends during pyrolysis via thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Bioresour. Technol. 101, 4584–4592 (2010) Vardon, D.R., Sharma, B.K., Blazina, G.V., Rajagopalan, K., Strathmann, T.J.: Thermo- chemical conversion of raw and defatted algal biomass via hydrothermal liquefaction and slow pyrolysis. Bioresour. Technol. 109, 178–187 (2012) Bridgwater, A.V.: Review of fast pyrolysis of biomass and product upgrading. Biomass Bioenergy 38, 68–94 (2012) Sulaiman, F., Abdullah, N.: Optimum conditions for maximising pyrolysis liquids of oil palm empty fruit bunches. Energy 36, 2352–2359 (2011) Meier, D., Faix, O.: State of the art of applied fast pyrolysis of lignocellulosic materials—a review. Bioresour. Technol. 68, 71–77 (1999) Demirbas, A.: Potential applications of renewable energy sources, biomass combustion problems in boiler power systems and combustion related environmental issues. Prog. Energy Combust. 31, 171–192 (2005) Goh, C.S., Tan, K.T., Lee, K.T., Bhatia, S.: Bio-ethanol from lignocellulose: status, perspectives and challenges in Malaysia. Bioresour. Technol. 101, 4834–4841 (2010) Aljuboori, A.: Oil palm biomass residue in Malaysia: availability and sustainability. Intl. J. Biomass Renew. 2, 13–18 (2013) Demirbas, A.: Relationships between lignin contents and fixed carbon contents of biomass samples. Energy Convers. Manag. 44, 1481–1486 (2003) Saka, S., Whole efficient utilization of oil palm to value-added products. In: Proceedings of JSPS-VCC natural resources & energy environment seminar (2005) Boerrigter, H., den Uil, H., Calis, H.P.: Green Diesel from Biomass via Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis: New Insights in Gas Cleaning and Process Design, pp. 371–383. CPL Press, Newbury (2003) Nipattummakul, N., Ahmed, N., Kerdsuwan, S., Gupta, A.K.: Steam gasification of oil palm trunk waste for clean syngas production. Appl. Energy 92, 778–782 (2012) Kumar, A., Jones, D., Hanna, M.A..: Thermochemical biomass gasification: a review of the current status of the technology. Energies 2, 556–581 (2009) Kobayashi, M., Asano, T., Kajiyama, M., Tomita, B.: Effect of ozone treatment of wood on its liquefaction. J. Wood Sci. 51, 348–356 (2005) Pan, H., Shupe, T.F., Hse, C.Y.: Characterization of liquefied wood residues from different liquefaction conditions. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 105, 3740–3746 (2007) Chen, F., Lu, Z.: Liquefaction of wheat strawand preparation of rigid polyurethane foam from the liquefaction products. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 111, 508–516 (2009) Kunaver, M., Medved, S., Čuk, N., Jasiukaitytė, E., Poljanšek, I., Strnad, T.: Application of liquefied wood as a new particle board adhesive system. Bioresour. Technol. 101, 1361–1368 (2010) Akhtar, J., Kuang, S.K., Amin, N.S.: Liquefaction of empty palm fruit bunch (EPFB) in alkaline hot compressed water. Renew. Energy 35, 1220–1227 (2010) Fan, S.P., Zakaria, S., Chia, C.H., Jamaluddin, F., Nabihah, S., Liew, T.K., et al.: Comparative studies of products obtained from solvolysis liquefaction of oil palm empty fruit bunch fibres using different solvents. Bioresour. Technol. 102, 3521–3526 (2011) Mazaheri, H., Lee, K.T., Bhatia, S., Mohamed, A.R.: Subcritical water liquefaction of oil palm fruit press fiber in the presence of sodium hydroxide: an optimization study using response surface methodology. Bioresour. Technol. 101, 9335–9341 (2010) Lim, H.K., Kim, D.R., Lee, K.I., Hwang, D.W., Hwang, I.T.: Complete saccharification of cellulose through chemo-enzymatic hydrolysis. Biomass Bioenergy 94, 31–38 (2016) Eom, I.Y., Yu, J.H., Jung, C.D., Hong, K.S.: Efficient ethanol production from dried oil palm trunk treated by hydrothermolysis and subsequent enzymatic hydrolysis. Biotechnol. Biofuels (2015). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13068-015-0263-6 Kosugi, A., Tanaka, R., Magara, K., Murata, Y., Arai, T., Suaiman, O., et al.: Ethanol and lactic acid production using sap squeezed from old oil palm trunks felled for replanting. J. Biosci. Bioeng. 110, 322–325 (2010) Chooklin, S., Kaewsichan, L., Kaewsrichan, J.: Potential utilization of sap from oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) for lactic acid production by lactobacillus casei. J. Sustain. Energy Environ. 2, 99–104 (2011) Komonkiat, I., Cheirsilp, B.: Felled oil palm trunk as a renewable source for biobutanol production by Clostridium spp.. Bioresour. Technol. 146, 200–207 (2013) Shahirah, M.N.N., Gimbun, J., Pang, S.F., Zakria, R.M., Cheng, C.K., Chua, G.K., et al., Influence of nutrient addition on the bioethanol yield from oil palm trunk sap fermented by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J. Ind. Eng. Chem. (2014) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2014.08.018 Kumneadklang, S., Larpkiattaworn, S., Niyaso, C., Thong, S.O., Bioethanol production from oil palm frond by simultaneous saccharification and fermentation. Energy Procedia 79, 784–790 (2015) Geng, A.: Conversion of oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch to biofUels. InTech, Rijeka (2013) Richana, N., Winarti, C., Hidayat, T., Prastowo, B.: Hydrolysis of empty fruit bunches of palm oil (Elaeis guineensis jacq.) by chemical, physical, and enzymatic methods for bioethanol production. Int. J. Chem. Eng. Appl. 6, 422–426 (2015). https://doi.org/10.7763/IJCEA.2015.V6.522 Christia, A., Setiowati, A.D., Millati, R., Karimi, K., Cahyanto, M.N., Niklasson, C., Taherzadeh, M.J.: Ethanol production from alkali-pretreated oil palm empty fruit bunch by simultaneous saccharification and fermentation with mucor indicus. Int. J. Green Energy 13, 566–572 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1080/15435075.2014.978004 Ward, A.J., Hobbs, P.J., Holliman, P.J., Jones, D.L.: Optimisation of the anaerobic digestion of agricultural resources. Bioresour. Technol. 99, 7928–7940 (2008) Khalid, A., Arshad, M., Anjum, M., Mahmood, T., Dawson, L.: Review—the anaerobic digestion of solid organic waste. Waste Manag. 31, 1737–1744 (2011) Singh, J., Gu, S.: Commercialization potential of microalgae for biofuels production. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 14, 2596–2610 (2010) Ma, A., Ong, A.: Pollution control in palm oil mills in Malaysia. J. Am. Oil. Chem. Soc. 62, 261–266 (1985) Yacob, S., Ali, H.M., Shirai, Y., Wakisaka, M., Subash, S.: Baseline study of methane emission from anaerobic ponds of palm oil mill effluent treatment. Sci. Total Environ. 366, 187–196 (2006) Chan, Y.J., Chong, M.F., Law, C.L.: An integrated anaerobic–aerobic bioreactor (IAAB) for the treatment of palm oil mill effluent (POME): start-up and steady state performance. Process Biochem. 47, 485–495 (2012) Wu, T.Y., Mohammad, A.W., Jahim, J.M., Anuar, N.: Pollution control technologies for the treatment of palm oil mill effluent (POME) through end-of-pipe processes. J. Environ. Manag. 91, 1467–1490 (2010) Chin, M.J., Poh, P.E., Tey, B.T., Chan, E.S., Chin, K.L.: Biogas from palm oil mill effluent (POME): opportunities and challenges from Malaysia’s perspective. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 26, 717–726 (2013) Akunna, J.C., Hierholtzer, A.: Co-digestion of terrestrial plant biomass with marine macro-algae for biogas production. Biomass Bioenergy 93, 137–143 (2016) Sing, C.Y., Aris, M.S.: A study of biomass fuel briquettes from oil palm mill residues. Asian J. Sci. Res. 6, 537–545 (2013) Nasrin, A.B., Choo, Y.M., Lim, W.S., Joseph, L., Miacael, S., Rohaya, M.A., Astimar, A.A., Low, S.K.: Briquetting of empty fruit bunch fibre and palm shell as a renewable energy fuel. J. Eng. Appl. Sci. 6, 446–451 (2011) Mun, L.K.D.: Potential for Waste-to-Energy in Malaysia Focus: Biomass, Malaysia Biomass Industries Confederation (MBIC2020), Waste to Energy in East Malaysia Programme, Frankfurt (2015) Khalid, H., Ariffin, D., Zin, Z.Z., Tarmizi, A.M.: An innovative technique on management of biomass during oil palm plantation. MOPB Inf. Ser. MOPB TT No. 101 (2001) Geng, A.: Upgrading of oil palm biomass to value- added products, In Hakeem et al. (eds), Biomass and Bioenergy: Applications, Springer, Cham, pp. 187–209 (2014) Abdul Khalil, H.P.S., Firdaus, M.Y.N., Jawaid, M., Anis, M., Ridzuan, R., Mohamed, A.R.: Development and material properties of new hybrid medium density fibreboard from empty fruit bunch and rubberwood. Mater. Des. 31(9), 4229–4236 (2010) Anis, M., Husin, M., Wan Hasamudin, W.H., Chua, K.H.: Oil palm plywood manufacture in Malaysia. In: Proceedings of the 6th national seminar on the utilization of oil palm tree. Oil Palm Tree Utilization Committee (OPTUC), Malaysia, pp. 51–55 (2003) Hashim, W.S., Elham, P., Jalaluddin, Z., Jantan, M.D., Chuah, K.H.: The manufacture of laminated veneer lumber from oil palm trunk. In: Proceedings of the fourth national seminar on wood based panel products “towards meeting global challenges. Malaysia, pp. 83–88: (2004) Salim, Y.S., Abdullah, A.A.A., Sipaut, C.S., Nasri, M., Ibrahim, M.N.M.: Biosynthesis of poly (3-hydroxybutyrate- co-3-hydroxyvalerate) and characterisation of its blend with oil palm empty fruit bunch fi bers. Bioresour. Technol. 102, 3526–3628 (2011) Mohamad, H.M.K., Hassana, A., Zakariac, Z., Inuwaa, I.M., Islamd, M.S., Jawaide, M.: Properties of polylactic acid composites reinforced with oil palm biomass microcrystalline cellulose. J. Hazard Mater. 164, 1316–1324 (2009) Rafatullah, M., Ahmad, T., Ghazali, A., Sulaiman, O., Danish, M., Hashim, R.: Oil palm biomass as a precursor of activated carbons: a review. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 43, 1117–1161 (2013) Hameed, B.H., Tan, I.A.W., Ahmad, A.L.: Preparation of oil palm empty fruit bunch-based activated carbon for removal of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol: optimization using response surface methodology. J Hazard Mater. 164, 1316–1324 (2009) Mohamed, M., Yusup, S.W., Machmudah, S., Goto, M., Uemura, Y.: Upgrading of oil palm empty fruit bunch to value-added products, In: Proceedings of the 6th national seminar on the utilization of oil palm tree. Oil Palm Tree Utilization Committee (OPTUC), Malaysia, pp. 51–55 (2014) Malaysian Biomass Industry Action Plan 2020 (MBIAP2020).: Driving SMEs towards sustainable future, Malaysian Industry-Government Group for High Technology (MiGHT) Tuah, S.Y., E&E—A gateway to Malaysia’s trade, Borneo Post online, (2016), https://www.dosm.gov.my/v1/uploads/files/5_Gallery/2_Media/4_Stats@media/1_General%20News/2016/Borneo_Post_160416_EE_A_gateway_to_Malaysias_trade.pdf The changing structure of Malaysia’s export, Economic Development Annual Report, 32–35 (2011), https://www.bnm.gov.my/files/publication/ar/en/2011/cp01_003_whitebox.pdf Chandran, V.G.R., Pandiyan, V., Madhavana, K., Malaysia’s Export Market: Trends, Prospects and Challenges, Revised version of a paper presented at the National Conference on Research Findings at Riviera Bay Resort Malacca, Malaysia, February 21, 2004, pp. 1–17 http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.195.9652&rep=rep1&type=pdf