Neuroethical Implications of Neurocognitive Enhancement in Managerial Professional Contexts

Springer Science and Business Media LLC - Tập 2 Số 4 - Trang 356-363 - 2018
Giulia Fronda1, Michela Balconi1, Davide Crivelli1
1Research Unit in Affective and Social Neuroscience, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Largo Gemelli 1, 20123, Milan, Italy

Tóm tắt

Từ khóa


Tài liệu tham khảo

Agar, N. (2014b). Truly human enhancement: a philosophical defense of limits. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Anand, R., Chapman, S. B., Rackley, A., Keebler, M., Zientz, J., & Hart, J. (2011). Gist reasoning training in cognitively normal seniors. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 26(9), 961–968. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.2633 .

Anguera, J. A., Boccanfuso, J., Rintoul, J. L., Al-Hashimi, O., Faraji, F., Janowich, J., et al. (2013). Video game training enhances cognitive control in older adults. Nature, 501(7465), 97–101. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12486 .

Ayaz, H., Izzetoglu, M., Platek, S. M., Bunce, S., Izzetoglu, K., Pourrezaei, K., & Onaral, B. (2006). Registering fNIR data to brain surface image using MRI templates. International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, 2671–2674. https://doi.org/10.1109/IEMBS.2006.260835 .

Balconi, M., & Bortolotti, A. (2012). Resonance mechanism in empathic behavior: BEES, BIS/BAS and psychophysiological contribution. Physiology & Behavior, 105(2), 298–304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.08.002 .

Balconi, M., & Mazza, G. (2009). Brain oscillations and BIS/BAS (behavioral inhibition/activation system) effects on processing masked emotional cues. ERS/ERD and coherence measures of alpha band. Internationl Journal of Psychophysiology, 74(2), 158–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2009.08.006 .

Balconi, M., & Mazza, G. (2010). Lateralization effect in comprehension of emotional facial expression: a comparison between EEG alpha band power and behavioural inhibition (BIS) and activation (BAS) systems. Laterality: Asymmetries of Body, Brain and Cognition, 15(3), 361–384. https://doi.org/10.1080/13576500902886056 .

Balconi, M., & Pozzoli, U. (2008). Event-related oscillations (ERO) and event- related potentials (ERP) in emotional face recognition. International Journal of Neuroscience, 118(10), 1412–1424. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207450601047119 .

Balconi, M., Grippa, E., & Vanutelli, M. E. (2015). What hemodynamic (fNIRS), electrophysiological (EEG) and autonomic integrated measures can tell us about emotional processing. Brain and Cognition, 95, 67–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2015.02.001 .

Balconi, M., Fronda, G., Venturella, I., & Crivelli, D. (2017). Conscious, pre-conscious and unconscious mechanisms in emotional behaviour. Some applications to the mindfulness approach with wearable devices. Applied Sciences, 7(12), 1280. https://doi.org/10.3390/app7121280 .

Berryhill, M. E., & Jones, K. T. (2012). tDCS selectively improves working memory in older adults with more education. Neuroscience Letters, 521(2), 148–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2012.05.074 .

Bishop, S. R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L., Anderson, N. D., Carmody, J., . . . Devins, G. (2004). Mindfulness: a proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11(3), 230–241. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.bph077 .

Bostrom, N., & Sandberg, A. (2009). Cognitive enhancement: methods, ethics, regulatory challenges. Science and Engineering Ethics, 15(3), 311–341. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11948-009-9142-5 .

Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(4), 822–848. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.822 .

Brunoni, A. R., Nitsche, M. A., Bolognini, N., Bikson, M., Wagner, T., Merabet, L., et al. (2012). Clinical research with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS): challenges and future directions. Brain Stimulation: Basic, Translational, and Clinical Research in Neuromodulation, 5(3), 175–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brs.2011.03.002 .

Butcher, J. (2003). Cognitive enhancement raises ethical concerns: academics urge pre-emptive debate on neurotechnologies. Lancet, 362(9378), 132–133.

Cahn, B. R., & Polich, J. (2009). Meditation (Vipassana) and the P3a event-related brain potential. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 72(1), 51–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2008.03.013 .

Caplan, A., & Mobley, W. (2002). No brainer--can we cope with the ethical ramifications of new knowledge of the human brain? Cerebrum, 4(3), 63.

Carlson, M. C., Erickson, K. I., Kramer, A. F., Voss, M. W., Bolea, N., Mielke, M., ... & Fried, L. P. (2009). Evidence for neurocognitive plasticity in at-risk older adults: the experience corps program. Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biomedical Sciences and Medical Sciences, 64(12), 1275–1282. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glp117 .

Chapman, S. B., & Mudar, R. A. (2013). Discourse gist: a window into the brain’s complex cognitive capacity. Discourse Studies, 15(5), 519–533. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461445613501444 .

Chapman, S. B., & Mudar, R. A. (2014). Enhancement of cognitive and neural functions through complex reasoning training: evidence from normal and clinical populations. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 8(69). https://doi.org/10.3389/fnsys.2014.00069 .

Chatterjee, A. (2013). The ethics of neuroenhancement. In J. Bernat & R. Beresford (Eds.), Ethical and legal issues in neurology: handbook of clinical neurology (Vol. 118, pp. 323–334). Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Clare, L., & Woods, R. T. (2004). Cognitive training and cognitive rehabilitation for people with early-stage Alzheimer’s disease: a review. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 14(4), 385–401.

Clark, V. P., & Parasuraman, R. (2014). Neuroenhancement: enhancing brain and mind in health and in disease. Neuroimage, 85(3), 889–894. https://doi.org/10.1080/09602010443000074 .

Coffman, B. A., Clark, V. P., & Parasuraman, R. (2014). Battery powered thought: enhancement of attention, learning, and memory in healthy adults using transcranial direct current stimulation. Neuroimage, 85(3), 895–908. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.07.083 .

Cohen Kadosh, R. (2013). The stimulated brain: cognitive enhancement using non- invasive brain stimulation. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Cohen Kadosh, R., Levy, N., O’Shea, J., Shea, N., & Savulescu, J. (2012). The neuroethics of non-invasive brain stimulation. Current Biology, 22(4), R108–R111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2012.01.013 .

Creswell, J. D., Way, B. M., Eisenberger, N. I., & Lieberman, M. D. (2007). Neural correlates of dispositional mindfulness during affect labeling. Psychosomatic Medicine, 69(6), 560–565. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0b013e3180f6171f .

Crivelli, D., Fronda, G., Venturella, I., & Balconi, M. (2018). Supporting mindfulness practices with brain-sensing devices. Cognitive and electrophysiological evidences. Mindfulness, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-0975-3 .

Dahlin, E., Nyberg, L., Bäckman, L., & Neely, A. S. (2008). Plasticity of executive functioning in young and older adults: immediate training gains, transfer, and long-term maintenance. Psychology and Aging, 23(4), 720–730. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014296 .

Davidson, R. J. (1995). Cerebral asymmetry, emotion and affective style. In R. J. Davidson & K. Hughdahl (Eds.), Brain asymmetry (pp. 361–387). Cambridge: MIT Press.

Davidson, R. J., & Irwin, W. (1999). The functional neuroanatomy of emotion and affective style. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 3(1), 11–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(98)01265-0 .

Decety, J., Jeannerod, M., Germain, M., & Pastene, J. (1991). Vegetative response during imagined movement is proportional to mental effort. Behavioural Brain Research, 42(1), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-4328(05)80033-6 .

Decety, J., Jeannerod, M., Durozard, D., & Baverel, G. (1993). Central activation of autonomic effectors during mental simulation of motor actions in man. The Journal of Physiology, 461(1), 549–563. https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.1993.sp019528 .

Denis, M. (1985). Visual imagery and the use of mental practice in the development of motor skills. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 10(4), 4S–16S.

Earp, B. D., Sandberg, A., Kahane, G., & Savulescu, J. (2014). When is diminishment a form of enhancement? Rethinking the enhancement debate in biomedical ethics. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 8(12). https://doi.org/10.3389/fnsys.2014.00012 .

Elliott, C. (1998). The tyranny of happiness: ethics and cosmetic psychopharmacology. In E. Parens (Ed.), Enhancing human traits: ethical and social implications (pp. 177–188). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.

Engvig, A., Fjell, A. M., Westlye, L. T., Moberget, T., Sundseth, Ø., Larsen, V. A., & Walhovd, K. B. (2012). Memory training impacts short-term changes in aging white matter: a longitudinal diffusion tensor imaging study. Human Brain Mapping, 33(10), 2390–2406. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.21370 .

Everhart, D. E., Carpenter, M. D., Carmona, J. E., Ethridge, A. J., & Demaree, H. A. (2003). Adult sex-related P300 differences during the perception of emotional prosody and facial affect. Psychophysiology, 40(S1), S39.

Farah, M. J. (2005). Neuroethics: the practical and the philosophical. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9(1), 34–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2004.12.001 .

Farah, M. J., Illes, J., Cook-Deegan, R., Gardner, H., Kandel, E., King, P., et al. (2004). Neurocognitive enhancement: what can we do and what should we do? Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5(5), 421–425. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1390 .

Finke, R. A., & Kosslyn, S. M. (1980). Mental imagery acuity in the peripheral visual field. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 6(1), 126–139. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.6.1.126 .

Flöel, A. (2014). tDCS-enhanced motor and cognitive function in neurological diseases. Neuroimage, 85(3), 934–947. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.05.098 .

Flöel, A., Meinzer, M., Kirstein, R., Nijhof, S., Deppe, M., Knecht, S., & Breitenstein, C. (2011). Short-term anomia training and electrical brain stimulation. Stroke, 42(7), 2065–2067. https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.110.609032 .

Fuchs, T. (2006). Ethical issues in neuroscience. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 19(6), 600–607. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.yco.0000245752.75879.26 .

Gentili, R., Papaxanthis, C., & Pozzo, T. (2006). Improvement and generalization of arm motor performance through motor imagery practice. Neuroscience, 137(3), 761–772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.10.013 .

Greely, H., Sahakian, B., Harris, J., Kessler, R. C., Gazzaniga, M., Campbell, P., & Farah, M. J. (2008). Towards responsible use of cognitive-enhancing drugs by the healthy. Nature, 456(7223), 702–705. https://doi.org/10.1038/456702a .

Gruzelier, J. H., & Egner, T. (2004). Physiological self-regulation: biofeedback and neurofeedback. Musical excellence. In A. Williamon (Ed.), Musical excellence: strategies and techniques to enhance performance (pp. 197–219). London: Oxford University Press.

Gunaratana, V. H. (1993). Sati. mindfulness in plain English. Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications.

Harris, J. (2007). Enhancing evolution: the ethical case for making better people. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Harris, J. (2009). Is it acceptable for people to take methylphenidate to enhance performance? Yes. BMJ: British Medical Journal, 338. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.b1955 .

Hayes, A. M., & Feldman, G. (2004). Clarifying the construct of mindfulness in the context of emotion regulation and the process of change in therapy. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11(3), 255–262. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.bph080 .

Heinz, A., Kipke, R., Heimann, H., & Wiesing, U. (2012). Cognitive neuroenhancement: false assumptions in the ethical debate. Journal of Medical Ethics, 38(6), 372–375. https://doi.org/10.1136/medethics-2011-100041 .

Hildt, E., & Franke, A. (2013). Cognitive enhancement: an interdisciplinary perspective. Dordrecht: Springer.

Hunter, M. A., Coffman, B., Trumbo, M., & Clark, V. (2013). Tracking the neuroplastic changes associated with transcranial direct current stimulation: a push for multimodal imaging. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7(495). https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00495 .

Hyman, S. E. (2011). Cognitive enhancement: promises and perils. Neuron, 69(4), 595–598. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2011.02.012 .

Ilieva, I. P., Hook, C. J., & Farah, M. J. (2015). Prescription stimulants’ effects on healthy inhibitory control, working memory, and episodic memory: a meta-analysis. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 27(6), 1069–1089. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_00776 .

Ingvar, D. H., & Philipson, L. (1977). Distribution of cerebral blood flow in the dominant hemisphere during motor ideation and motor performance. Annals of Neurology, 2(3), 230–237. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.410020309 .

Jacobson, E. (1932). Electrophysiology of mental activities. The American Journal of Psychology, 44(4), 677–694. https://doi.org/10.2307/1414531 .

Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Jonides, J., & Perrig, W. J. (2008). Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105(19), 6829–6833. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0801268105 .

Jha, A. P., Witkin, J. E., Morrison, A. B., Rostrup, N., & Stanley, E. (2017). Short-form mindfulness training protects against working memory degradation over high-demand intervals. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 1(2), 154–171. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-017-0035-2 .

Juengst, E. (1998). What does enhancement mean? In E. Parens (Ed.), Enhancing human traits (pp. 25–43). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.

Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full catastrophe living: how to cope with stress, pain and illness using mindfulness meditation. New York: NY: Bantam Dell.

Kapleau, P. (1965). The three pillars of Zen: teaching, practice and enlightenment. Boston: Bacon Press.

Keng, S. L., Smoski, M. J., & Robins, C. J. (2011). Effects of mindfulness on psychological health: a review of empirical studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(6), 1041–1056. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2011.04.006 .

Khoury, B., Lecomte, T., Fortin, G., Masse, M., Therien, P., Bouchard, V., et al. (2013). Mindfulness-based therapy: a comprehensive meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 33(6), 763–771. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.05.005 .

Koelega, H. S. (1993). Stimulant drugs and vigilance performance: a review. Psychopharmacology, 111(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02257400 .

Kumar, S. M., Feldman, G. C., & C., H.S. (2008). Changes in mindfulness end emotion regulation in an exposure based cognitive therapy for depression. Cognitive Therapy & Research, 32(6), 734–744. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-008-9190-1 .

Lau, M. A., Bishop, S. R., Segal, Z. V., Buis, T., Anderson, N. D., Carlson, L., et al. (2006). The Toronto Mindfulness Scale: development and validation. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62(12), 1445–1467. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20326 .

Lewis, C. M., Baldassarre, A., Committeri, G., Romani, G. L., & Corbetta, M. (2009). Learning sculpts the spontaneous activity of the resting human brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(41), 17558–17563. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0902455106 .

Lezak, M. D., Howieson, D. B., Bigler, E. D., & Tranel, D. (2012). Neuropsychological assessment. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Lövdén, M., Bäckman, L., Lindenberger, U., Schaefer, S., & Schmiedek, F. (2010). A theoretical framework for the study of adult cognitive plasticity. Psychological Bulletin, 136(4), 659–676. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020080 .

Lucke, J., & Partridge, B. (2013). Towards a smart population: a public health framework for cognitive enhancement. Neuroethics, 6(2), 419–427. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12152-012-9167-3 .

Madden, D. J., Bennett, I. J., & Song, A. W. (2009a). Cerebral white matter integrity and cognitive aging: contributions from diffusion tensor imaging. Neuropsychology Review, 19(4), 415–435. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-009-9113-2 .

Marcus, S. (2002). Neuroethics: mapping the field. New York: Dana Press.

Marraccini, M. E., Weyandt, L. L., Rossi, J. S., & Gudmundsdottir, B. G. (2016). Neurocognitive enhancement or impairment? A systematic meta-analysis of prescription stimulant effects on processing speed, decision-making, planning, and cognitive perseveration. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 24(4), 269–284. https://doi.org/10.1037/pha0000079 .

Martin, M., Clare, L., Altgassen, A. M., Cameron, M. H., & Zehnder, F. (2011). Cognition-based interventions for healthy older people and people with mild cognitive impairment. Cochrane Databaase of Systematic Reviews, 1. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD006220 .

McKendrick, R., Parasuraman, R., & Ayaz, H. (2015). Wearable functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS): expanding vistas for neurocognitive augmentation. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 9(27). https://doi.org/10.3389/fnsys.2015.00027 .

Metzinger, T., & Hildt, E. (2011). Cognitive enhancement. In J. Illes & B. J. Sahakian (Eds.), Oxford handbook of neuroethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Mulder, T., Zijlstra, S., Zijlstra, W., & Hochstenbach, J. (2004). The role of motor imagery in learning a totally novel movement. Experimental Brain Research, 154(2), 211–217. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-003-1647-6 .

Nagel, S. K. (2010a). Too much of a good thing? Enhancement and the burden of self-determination. Neuroethics, 3(2), 109–119. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnsys.2014.00072 .

Nagel, S. K. (2014). Enhancement for well-being is still ethically challenging. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 8(72). https://doi.org/10.3389/fnsys.2014.00072 .

Nagel, S. K. (2015). When aid is a good thing: trusting relationships as autonomy support in health care settings. The American Journal of Bioethics, 15(10), 49–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2015.1074316 .

Nesse, R. M., Bhatnagar, S., & Ellis, B. (2016). Evolutionary origins and functions of the stress response system. In Stress: concepts, cognition, emotion, and behavior (pp. 95–101).

Nyberg, L., Sandblom, J., Jones, S., Neely, A. S., Petersson, K. M., Ingvar, M., & Bäckman, L. (2003). Neural correlates of training-related memory improvement in adulthood and aging. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100(23), 13728–13733. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1735487100 .

O’Connor, C., & Nagel, S. K. (2017). Neuro-enhancement practices across the lifecourse: exploring the roles of relationality and individualism. Frontiers in Sociology, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2017.00001 .

Page, S. J., Levine, P., Sisto, S., & Johnston, M. V. (2001). A randomized efficacy and feasibility study of imagery in acute stroke. Clinical Rehabilitation, 15(3), 233–240. https://doi.org/10.1191/026921501672063235 .

Papadelis, C., Kourtidou-Papadeli, C., Bamidis, P., & Albani, M. (2007). Effects of imagery training on cognitive performance and use of physiological measures as an assessment tool of mental effort. Brain and Cognition, 64(1), 74–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2007.01.001 .

Parasuraman, R., & McKinley, R. A. (2014). Using noninvasive brain stimulation to accelerate learning and enhance human performance. Human Factors, 56(5), 816–824. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018720814538815 .

Parens, E. (1998). Enhancing human traits: ethical and social implications. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.

Pascoe, M., & Crewther, S. (2016). A systematic review of randomised control trials examining the effects of mindfulness on stress and anxious symptomatology. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 68, 270–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.07.013 .

Pascual-Leone, A., Nguyet, D., Cohen, L. G., Brasil-Neto, J. P., Cammarota, A., & Hallett, M. (1995). Modulation of muscle responses evoked by transcranial magnetic stimulation during the acquisition of new fine motor skills. Journal of Neurophysiology, 74(3), 1037–1045. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.1995.74.3.1037 .

Raes, F., Dewulf, D., Van Heeringen, C., & Williams, J. M. G. (2009). Mindfulness and reduced cognitive reactivity to sad mood: evidence from a correlational study and a non-randomized waiting list controlled study. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47(7), 623–662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2009.03.007 .

Ray, K. S. (2016). Not just “study drugs” for the rich: stimulants as moral tools for creating opportunities for socially disadvantaged students. The American Journal of Bioethics, 16(6), 29–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2016.1170231 .

Riccio, C. A., Waldrop, J. J., Reynolds, C. R., & Lowe, P. (2001). Effects of stimulants on the continuous performance test (CPT). The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 13(3), 326–335. https://doi.org/10.1176/jnp.13.3.326 .

Roland, P. E., Larsen, B., Lassen, N. A., & Skinhoj, E. (1980). Supplementary motor area and other cortical areas in organization of voluntary movements in man. Journal of Neurophysiology, 43(1), 118–136. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.1980.43.1.118 .

Rooks, J. D., Morrison, A. B., Goolsarran, M., Rogers, S. L., & Jha, A. P. (2017). We are talking about practice: the influence of mindfulness vs. relaxation training on athletes’ attention and well-being over high-demand intervals. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 1(2), 141–153. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-017-0016-5 .

Roozendaal, B., McEwen, B. S., & Chattarji, S. (2009). Stress, memory and the amygdala. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10(6), 423–433. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2651 .

Sahakian, B., & Morein-Zamir, S. (2007). Cognitive enhancement: professor’s little helper. Nature, 450(7173), 1157–1159. https://doi.org/10.1038/4501157a .

Sahakian, B., & Morein-Zamir, S. (2011). Neuroethical issues in cognitive enhancement. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 25(2), 197–204. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881109106926 .

Sandberg, A. (2011). Cognition enhancement: upgrading the brain. In J. Savulescu, R. ter Meulen, & G. Kahane (Eds.), Enhancing human capacities (pp. 71–91). Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.

Sandel, M. J. (2009). The case against perfection. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Santoni de Sio, F., Faulmüller, N., & Vincent, N. A. (2014). How cognitive enhancement can change our duties. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 8(131). https://doi.org/10.3389/fnsys.2014.00131 .

Savulescu, J., Sandberg, A., & Kahane, G. (2011). Enhancement and well-being. In J. Savulescu, R. ter Meulen, & G. Kahane (Eds.), Enhancing human capacities (pp. 3–18). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.

Schelle, K. J., Faulmüller, N., Caviola, L., & Hewstone, M. (2014). Attitudes toward pharmacological cognitive enhancement—a review. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 8(53). https://doi.org/10.3389/fnsys.2014.00053 .

Schlösser, R. G. M., Nenadic, I., Wagner, G., Zysset, S., Koch, K., & Sauer, H. (2009). Dopaminergic modulation of brain systems subserving decision making under uncertainty: a study with fMRI and methylphenidate challenge. Synapse, 63(5), 429–442. https://doi.org/10.1002/syn.20621 .

Schooler, C. (1984). Psychological effects of complex environments during the life span: a review and theory. Intelligence, 8(4), 259–281. https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-2896(84)90011-4 .

Schooler, C., Mulatu, M. S., & Oates, G. (1999). The continuing effects of substantively complex work on the intellectual functioning of older workers. Psychology and Aging, 14(3), 483–506.

Shook, J. R., Galvagni, L., & Giordano, J. (2014). Cognitive enhancement kept within contexts: neuroethics and informed public policy. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 8(228). https://doi.org/10.3389/fnsys.2014.00228 .

Singh, I., & Kelleher, K. J. (2010). Neuroenhancement in young people: proposal for research, policy, and clinical management. AJOB Neuroscience, 1(1), 3–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/21507740903508591 .

Strenziok, M., Parasuraman, R., Clarke, E., Cisler, D. S., Thompson, J. C., & Greenwood, P. M. (2014). Neurocognitive enhancement in older adults: comparison of three cognitive training tasks to test a hypothesis of training transfer in brain connectivity. Neuroimage, 85(3), 1027–1039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.07.069 .

Teasdale, J. D., Segal, Z., & Williams, J. M. G. (1995). How does cognitive therapy prevent depressive relapse and why should attentional control (mindfulness) training help? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33(1), 25–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(94)E0011-7 .

Valenzuela, M. J., Sachdev, P., Wen, W., Chen, X., & Brodaty, H. (2008). Lifespan mental activity predicts diminished rate of hippocampal atrophy. PLoS One, 3(7), e2598. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0002598 .

Voss, M. W., Heo, S., Prakash, R. S., Erickson, K. I., Alves, H., Chaddock, L., & Kramer, A. F. (2012). The influence of aerobic fitness on cerebral white matter integrity and cognitive function in older adults: results of a one-year exercise intervention. Human Brain Mapping, 34(11), 2972–2985.

Wolpe, P. (2002). Treatment, enhancement and the ethics of neurotherapeutics. Brain and Cognition, 50(3), 387–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(02)00534-1 .

Zelinski, E. M. (2009). Far transfer in cognitive training of older adults. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, 27(5), 455–471. https://doi.org/10.3233/RNN-2009-0495 .