Neural control of locomotion; Part 1: The central pattern generator from cats to humans

Gait & Posture - Tập 7 Số 2 - Trang 131-141 - 1998
Jacques Duysens1, H.W.A.A. van de Crommert
1Department of Medical Physics and Biophysics, K.U.N., P.O. Box 9101, 6500 HB, Nijmegen, The Netherlands

Tóm tắt

Từ khóa


Tài liệu tham khảo

Grillner, 1985, Central pattern generators for locomotion, with special reference to vertebrates, Ann Rev Neurosci, 8, 233, 10.1146/annurev.ne.08.030185.001313

Prochazka, 1979, Muscle spindle discharge in normal and obstructed movements, J Physiol, 287, 57, 10.1113/jphysiol.1979.sp012645

Perret, 1980, Main characteristics of the hindlimb locomotor cycle in the decorticate cat with special reference to bifunctional muscles, Brain Res, 187, 333, 10.1016/0006-8993(80)90207-3

Wisleder, 1990, Speed-related changes in hindlimb intersegmental dynamics during the swing phase of cat locomotion, Exp Brain Res, 79, 651, 10.1007/BF00229333

Van de Crommert HWAA, Mulder T, Duysens J. Neural control of locomotion; Part 2: Sensory control of the locomotor CPG. Gait Pos (in press).

Grillner, 1985, Neurobiological bases on rhythmic motor acts in vertebrates, Science, 228, 143, 10.1126/science.3975635

Weiss P. Central versus peripheral factors in the development of coordination. In: Bard P, editor. Patterns of Organization in the Central Nervous System. Chap. 1. Williams and Wilkins, 1952:2–23.

Forssberg, 1983, Hardwired locomotor network in cat revealed by a retained motor pattern to gastrocnemius after muscle transposition, Neurosci Lett, 42, 283, 10.1016/0304-3940(83)90464-0

Gordon, 1986, Innervation and function of hind-limb muscles in the cat after cross-union of the tibial and peroneal nerves, J Physiol Lond, 374, 429, 10.1113/jphysiol.1986.sp016089

Sperry, 1940, The functional results of muscle transposition in the hindlimb of the rat, J Comp Neurol, 73, 379, 10.1002/cne.900730303

Brown, 1911, The intinsic factors in the act of progression in the mammal, Proc R Soc Lond, B84, 308, 10.1098/rspb.1911.0077

Brown, 1912, The factors in rhythmic activity of the nervous system, Proc R Soc London Ser, B85, 278, 10.1098/rspb.1912.0051

Rossignol S. Neural control of stereotypic limb movements. In: Rowell, Sheperd JT, editors. Exercise: Regulation and Integration of Multiple Systems. Handbook of Physiology. Sec. 12. Bethseda: America Physiological Society, 1996:173–216.

Grillner, 1975, How detailed is the central pattern generator for locomotion?, Brain Res, 88, 367, 10.1016/0006-8993(75)90401-1

Coggeshall, 1997, Unmyelinated fibers in the ventral root, Brain Res, 57, 229, 10.1016/0006-8993(73)90582-9

Loeb GE. Ventral root projections of myelinated dorsal root ganglion cells in the cat. 1976;106:159–65.

Grillner, 1984, The effect of dorsal root transection on the efferent motor pattern in the cat's hindlimb during locomotion, Acta Physiol Scand, 120, 393, 10.1111/j.1748-1716.1984.tb07400.x

Coggeshall, 1980, Law of separation of function of the spinal roots, Physiol Rev, 60, 716, 10.1152/physrev.1980.60.3.716

Shik, 1976, Neurophysiology of locomotor automatism, Physiol Rev, 55, 465, 10.1152/physrev.1976.56.3.465

Shik ML, Orlovsky GN, Severin FV. Organization of locomotor synergism. Biophysics 1966a;11:1011–19.

Shik ML, Severin FV, Orlovsky GN. Control of walking and running by means of electrical stimulation of the mid-brain. Biophysics 1966b;11:756–65.

Shik, 1968, Locomotion of the mesencephalic cat elicited by stimulation of the pyramids, Biophysics, 13, 143

Cruse, 1992, Coordination of the legs of a slow-walking cat, Exp Brain Res, 89, 147, 10.1007/BF00229012

Giuliani, 1987, Stepping behaviors in chronic spinal cats with one hindlimb deafferented, J Neurosci, 7, 2537

Forssberg H, Grillner S, Halbertsma J. The locomotion of the low spinal cat. I. Coordination within a hindlimb. Acta Physiol Scand 1980a;108:269–81.

Forssberg H, Grillner S, Halbertsma J, Rossignol S. The locomotion of the low spinal cat. II. Interlimb coordination. Acta Physiol Scand 1980b;108:283–95.

Barbeau, 1987, Recovery of locomotion after chronic spinalization in the adult cat, Brain Res, 412, 84, 10.1016/0006-8993(87)91442-9

Brown, 1912, The rule of reflex response in the limb reflexes of the mammal and its exceptions, J Physiol, 44, 125, 10.1113/jphysiol.1912.sp001504

Jankowska, 1967, The effects of DOPA on the spinal cord. 5 Reciprocal organization of pathways transmitting excitatory action to alpha motoneuroned of flexors and extensors, Acta Physiol Scand, 70, 369, 10.1111/j.1748-1716.1967.tb03636.x

Lundberg A. Half centers revisited. In: Szentagothai J, Palkovits M, Hamori J, editors. Regulatory Functions of the CNS. Principles of Motion and Organization. Academiai Kiado, Budapest, Oxford: Pergamon, 1981:155–67.

Gossard, 1994, Transmission in a locomotor-related group Ib pathway from hindlimb extensor muscles in the cat, Exp Brain Res, 98, 213, 10.1007/BF00228410

Chandler, 1984, Characterization of synaptic potentials in hindlimb extensor motoneurons during l-DOPA-induced fictive locomotion in acute and chronic spinal cats, Brain Res, 303, 91, 10.1016/0006-8993(84)90214-2

Fleshman, 1984, Peripheral and central control of flexor digitorum longus and flexor hallucis longus motoneurons; the synaptic basis of functional diversity, Exp Brain Res, 54, 133, 10.1007/BF00235825

Floeter, 1993, Disynaptic excitation from the medial longitudinal fasciculus to lumbosacral motoneurons: modulation by repetitive activation, descending pathways, and locomotion, Exp Brain Res, 92, 407, 10.1007/BF00229029

Miller, 1975, Coordination of movements of the hindlimbs and forelimbs in different forms of locomotion in normal and decerebrate cats, Brain Res, 91, 217, 10.1016/0006-8993(75)90544-2

Amemiya, 1984, Fictive locomotion of the forelimb evoked by stimulation of the mesencephalic locomotor region in the decerebrate cat, Neurosci Lett, 50, 91, 10.1016/0304-3940(84)90468-3

Yamaguchi, 1992, Muscle activity during forelimb stepping in decerebrate cats, Jpn J Physiol, 42, 489, 10.2170/jjphysiol.42.489

Buford, 1993, Adaptive control for backward quadrupedal walking. III Stumbling corrective reactions and cutaneous reflex sensitivity, J Neurophysiol, 70, 1102, 10.1152/jn.1993.70.3.1102

Pearson, 1991, Fictive motor patterns in chronic spinal cats, J Neurophysiol, 66, 1009, 10.1152/jn.1991.66.6.1874

Goldberger, 1977, Locomotor recovery after unilateral hindlimb deafferentation in cats, Brain Res, 123, 59, 10.1016/0006-8993(77)90643-6

Smith JL. Hindlimb locomotion of the spinal cat: synergistic patterns, limb dynamics and novel blends. In: Gurfinkel VS, Ioffe ME, Massion J, Roll JP, editors. Stance and Motion. London: Plenum. 1986:185–97.

Smith, 1993, Gait-related motor pattern and hindlimb kinetics for the cat trot and gallop, Exp Brain Res, 94, 308, 10.1007/BF00230301

Grillner S. Control of locomotion in bipeds, tetrapods, and fish. In: Brookhart JM, Mountcastle VB, editors. Handbook of Physiology. American Physiological Society 1981:1179–236.

Rossignol, 1994, Spinal pattern generation, Curr Opin Neurobiol, 4, 894, 10.1016/0959-4388(94)90139-2

Armstrong, 1988, The supraspinal control of mammalian locomotion, J Physiol Lond, 405, 1, 10.1113/jphysiol.1988.sp017319

Philippson M. L'autonomie et la centralisation dans le systéme nerveux des animaux. Trav Lab Physiol Inst Solvay (Brussels) 1905;7:1–208.

Eidelberg E. Consequences of spinal cord lesions upon motor function, with special reference to locomotor activity. Prog Neurobiol 1981a;17:185–202.

Vilensky, 1992, Recovery of locomotion in monkeys with spinal cord lesions, J Mot Behav, 24, 288, 10.1080/00222895.1992.9941624

Vilensky, 1997, Stepping in humans with complete spinal cord transection: a phylogenetic evaluation, Mot Cont, 1, 284, 10.1123/mcj.1.3.284

Hultborn, 1993, Evidence of fictive spinal locomotion in the marmoset (Callithrix Jacchus), Soc Neurosci Abstr, 19, 539

Roby-Brami, 1987, Long latency spinal reflex in man after flexor reflex afferent stimulation, Brain, 110, 707, 10.1093/brain/110.3.707

Roby-Brami, 1990, Effects of flexor reflex afferent stimulation on the soleus H reflex in patients with a complete spinal cord lesion: evidence for a presynaptic inhibition of Ia transmission, Exp Brain Res, 81, 593, 10.1007/BF02423509

Roby-Brami, 1992, Inhibitory effect on flexor reflexes in patients with a complete spinal cord section, Exp Brain Res, 90, 201, 10.1007/BF00229272

Bussel B, Roby-Brami A, Azouvi P. Organization of reflexes elicited by flexor reflex afferents in paraplegic man: evidence for a spinal stepping generator. In: Jami L, Pierrot-Deseilligny E, Zytnicki D, editors. Muscle Afferents and Spinal Control of Movement. Oxford: Pergamon, 1991:427.

Roby-Brami A, Bussel B. Late flexion reflex in paraplegic patients: evidence for a spinal stepping generator. In: Thilmann et al. (editors). Mechanisms and Management. Heidelberg: Springer, 1993:333–43.

Duysens, 1977, Reflex control locomotion as revealed by stimulation of cutaneous afferents in spontaneously walking premammillary cats, J Neurophysiol, 140, 737, 10.1152/jn.1977.40.4.737

Lhermite J. La section totale de la moelle dorsal. Tardy Pigelet, Bourges, 1919.

Kuhn, 1950, Functional capacity of the isolated human spinal cord, Brain, 73, 1, 10.1093/brain/73.1.1

Bussel, 1988, Myoclonus in a patient with a spinal cord transection. Possible involvement of the spinal stepping generator, Brain, 111, 1235, 10.1093/brain/111.5.1235

Bussel, 1996, Evidence for a spinal stepping generator in man, Paraplegia, 34, 91, 10.1038/sc.1996.15

Schalow, 1996, Electromyographic identification of spinal oscillator patterns and recouplings in a patient with incomplete spinal cord lesion: oscillator formation training as a method to improve motor activities, Gen Physiol Biophys, 15, 121

Calancie, 1994, Involuntary stepping after chronic spinal cord injury. Evidence for a central rhythm generator for locomotion in man, Brain, 117, 1143, 10.1093/brain/117.5.1143

Dobkin, 1995, Modulation of locomotor-like EMG activity in subjects with complete and incomplete spinal cord injury, J Neuro Rehab, 9, 183

Hanna, 1995, Automatic stepping in the pontomedullary stage of central herniation, Neurology, 45, 985, 10.1212/WNL.45.5.985

Luys J. Le cerveau et ses fonctions. Paris, 1893:139–41.

Coleman, 1980, Periodic movements in sleep (noctural myoclonus): relation to sleep disorders, Ann Neurol, 8, 416, 10.1002/ana.410080413

Lugaresi, 1986, Nocturnal myoclonus and restless leg syndrome, Adv Neurol, 43, 295

Bixler, 1982, Nocturnal myoclonus and nocturnal myoclonic activity in a normal population, Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol, 36, 129

Yokota, 1991, Sleep-related periodic leg movements (nocturnal myoclonus) due to spinal cord lesion, J Neurol Sci, 104, 13, 10.1016/0022-510X(91)90210-X

Lee, 1996, Sleep-related periodic leg movements assocoiated with spinal cord lesions, Move Disord, 11, 719, 10.1002/mds.870110619

Dickel, 1994, Rapid eye movement sleep periodic leg movements in patients with spinal cord injury, Sleep, 17, 733, 10.1093/sleep/17.8.733

Groen, 1978, Periodic nocturnal myoclonus in a patient with hyperekplexia (startle disease), J Neurol Sci, 38, 207, 10.1016/0022-510X(78)90067-9

Koning-Tijssen MAJ de. Hyperekplexia—startle disease. Thesis, Leiden. 1997:1–173.

Avelev V, Anissimova N, Khoroshikh E, Gerasimenko Y. Activation of central pattern generator in cat by epidural spinal cordstimulation. In: Gurfinkel VS, Levik Yu S, editors. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Brain and Movement St. Petersburg, Moscow, 1997:26.

Rosenfeld, 1995, Evidence of a pattern generator in paralyzed subject with spinal cord stimulation, Soc Neurosci Abstr, 21, 688

Gerasimenko YP, Makarovsky AN. Neurophysiological evaluation of the effects of spinal cord stimulation in spinal patients. In: Stuart DG, Gatchev GN, Gurfunkel VS, Wiesendangerr M, editors. Motor Control VII. Tucson: Motor Control. 1996a:153–7.

Gerasimenko Y, McKay WB, Pollo FE, Dimitrijevic MR. Stepping movements in paraplegic patients induced by epidural spinal cord stimulation. Soc Neurosci Abstr 1996b;22:1372.

Shapkova HY, Shapkov YT, Mushkin AY. Locomotor activity in paraplegic children induced by spinal cord stimulation. In: Gurfinkel VS, Levik Yu S, editors. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Brain and Movement. St. Petersburg, Moscow. 1997:170–1.

Dimitrijevic MR, Pinter M, Sherwood AM. The effect of reduced suprasegmental input as a result of spinal cord injury on stepping movement induced by epidural stimulation of the lumbar enlargement in humans. In: Gurfinkel VS, Levik Yu S, editors. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Brain and Movement, St. Petersburg, Moscow, 1997:59.

Dimitrijevic MR, Gerasimenko Y, Pollo FE. Sustained epidural electrical stimulation of the spinalized lumbar cord in humans can facilitate or suppress spinal reflex and central pattern generator activities. In: Gurfinkel VS, Levik Yu S, editors. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Brain and Movement, St. Petersburg, Moscow, 1997:60.

Gerasimenko Y, Avelev V, Anissimova N, Dubrovin V, Makaravsky A, Nikitin O. Motor control functions of the spinal cord in paraplegic patients and in cats with various lesions of CNS. In: Gurfinkel VS, Levik Yu S, editors. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Brain and Movement. St. Petersburg, Moscow, 1997:79.

Selionov VA, Kazennikov OV, Levik YS, Gurfinkel VS. Experimental investigation of locomotor-like movements elicited by vibration in human. In: Gurfinkel VS, Levik Yu S, editors. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Brain and Movement, St. Petersburg, Moscow, 1997:167.

Kazennikov O, Selionov V, Levik Y, Gurfinkel V. Sensory facilitation of the vibratory evoked air-stepping in human. In: Gurfinkel VS, Levik Yu S editors. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Brain and Movement. St. Petersburg, Moscow. 1997:104.

Robinson, 1986, The development and recovery of motor function in spinal cats. I. The infant lesion effect, Exp Brain Res, 62, 373, 10.1007/BF00238857

Patla AE. Neurobiomechanical bases for the control of human locomotion. In: Bronstein A, Brandt T, Wolloncott MH, editors. Clinical Disorders of Balance, Posture and Gait. London: Arnold, 1995:19–40.

Forssberg, 1985, Ontogeny of human locomotor control. I. Infant stepping, supported locomotion and transition to independent locomotion, Exp Brain Res, 57, 480, 10.1007/BF00237835

Thelen, 1987, Relationship between newborn stepping and later walking: a new interpretation, Dev Med Child Neurol, 29, 380, 10.1111/j.1469-8749.1987.tb02492.x

Rayburn, 1995, Fetal movement monitoring, Clin Obstet Gynecol, 38, 59, 10.1097/00003081-199503000-00008

Pearson KG. Common principles of motor control in vertebrates and invertebrates. Ann Rec Neurosci 1993;265–97.

Clarac, 1984, Spatial and temporal co-ordination during walking in Crustacea, Trends Neurosci, 7, 3293, 10.1016/S0166-2236(84)80199-X

Buford, 1990, Adaptive control of backward quadriped walking. II Hindlimb muscle synergies, J Neurophysiol, 64, 756, 10.1152/jn.1990.64.3.756

Thorstensson, 1986, How is the normal locomotor program modified to produce backward walking?, Exp Brain Res, 61, 644, 10.1007/BF00237595

Perell, 1993, Adaptive control for backward quadrupedal walking. IV. Hindlimb kinetics during stance and swing, J Neurophysiol, 70, 2226, 10.1152/jn.1993.70.6.2226

Vilensky, 1987, Kinematic comparison of backward and forward walking in humans, J Hum Move Stud, 13, 29

Winter, 1989, Backward walking a simple reversal of forward walking, J Mot Behav, 21, 291, 10.1080/00222895.1989.10735483

Duysens, 1996, Backward and forward walking use different patterns of phase-dependent modulation of cutaneous reflexes in humans, J Neurophysiol, 76, 301, 10.1152/jn.1996.76.1.301

Whelan, 1996, Control of locomotion in the decerebrate cat, Prog Neurobiol, 49, 481, 10.1016/0301-0082(96)00028-7

Jordan, 1979, Locomotion evoked by brain stem stimulation: occurence without phasic segmental afferent input, Brain Res, 177, 204, 10.1016/0006-8993(79)90933-8

Eidelberg E, Walden JG, Nguyen LH. Locomotor control in macaque monkeys. Brain 1981b;104:647–63.

Masdeu, 1994, Astasia and gait failure with damage of the pontomescencephalic locomotor region, Ann Neurol, 35, 619, 10.1002/ana.410350517

Budakova, 1973, Stepping movements in the spinal cat due to DOPA administration, Fioziol Zh SSSR, 59, 1190

Forssberg, 1973, The locomotion of the acute spinal cat injected with clonidine i.v., Brain Res, 50, 184, 10.1016/0006-8993(73)90606-9

Grillner, 1979, On the central generation of locomotion in the low spinal cat, Exp Brain Res, 34, 241, 10.1007/BF00235671

Barbeau, 1993, Noradrenergic agonists and locomotor training affect locomotor recovery after cord transection in adult cats, Brain Res Bull, 30, 387, 10.1016/0361-9230(93)90270-L

Barbeau, 1987, The effects of clonidine and yohimbine on locomotion and cutaneous reflexes in the adult chronic spinal cat, Brain Res, 437, 83, 10.1016/0006-8993(87)91529-0

Barbeau, 1991, Initiation and modulation of locomotor pattern in the adult chronic spinal cat by noradrenergic, serotonergic and dopaminergic drugs, Brain Res, 546, 250, 10.1016/0006-8993(91)91489-N

Russel, 1979, Effects of stimulating Deiter's nucleus and medial longitudinal fasciculus on the timing of the fictive locomotor rhythm induced in cats by DOPA, Brain Res, 177, 588, 10.1016/0006-8993(79)90478-5

Dietz, 1994, Locomotor activity in spinal man, Lancet, 344, 1260, 10.1016/S0140-6736(94)90751-X

Dietz, 1995, Locomotor capacity of spinal cord in paraplegic patients, Ann Neurol, 37, 574, 10.1002/ana.410370506

Dietz, 1992, Human motor control of automatic functional movements: Interaction between central programs and afferent input, Physiol Rev, 72, 33, 10.1152/physrev.1992.72.1.33

Duysens, 1992, Phase-dependent reversal of reflexly induced movements during human gait, Exp Brain Res, 90, 404, 10.1007/BF00227255

Edgerton VR, Grillner S, Sjostrom A, Zangger P. Central generation of locomotion in vertebrates. In: Herman RM, Grillner S, Stein P, Stuart DG, (editors). Neural Control of Locomotion. New York: Plenum, 1976:439–64.

Rossignol, 1993, Pharmacology of locomotion: an account of studies in spinal cats and spinal cord injured subjects, J Am Paraplegia Soc, 16, 190, 10.1080/01952307.1993.11735900

Sperry, 1941, The effect of crossing nerves to antagonistic muscles in the hind limb of the rat, J Comp Neurol, 75, 1, 10.1002/cne.900750102

Sperry, 1942, Transplantation of motor nerves and muscles in the forelimb of the rat, J Comp Neurol, 76, 283, 10.1002/cne.900760206

Van de Crommert HWAA, Faist M, Berger W, Duysens J. Biceps femoris tendon jerk reflexes are enhanced at the end of the swing phase. Brain Res 734:341–4