Myths and truths about the cellular composition of the human brain: A review of influential concepts

Abercrombie, 1946, Estimation of nuclear population from microtome sections, Anat. Rec., 94, 239, 10.1002/ar.1090940210 Abusaad, 1999, Stereological estimation of the total number of neurons in the murine hippocampus using the optical disector, J. Comp. Neurol., 408, 560, 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19990614)408:4<560::AID-CNE9>3.0.CO;2-P Amaral, 2008, Neuroanatomy of autism, Trends Neurosci., 31, 137, 10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.005 Andersen, 1999, Pronounced loss of cell nuclei and anisotropic deformation of thick sections, J. Microsc., 196, 69, 10.1046/j.1365-2818.1999.00555.x Andersen, 1992, A quantitative study of the human cerebellum with unbiased stereological techniques, J. Comp. Neurol., 326, 549, 10.1002/cne.903260405 Andersen, 2012, Stereological quantification of the cerebellum in patients with Alzheimer's disease, Neurobiol. Aging, 33, e11 Anderson, 1983, The effect of advanced old age on the neurone content of the cerebral cortex: observations with an automatic image analyser point counting method, J. Neurol. Sci., 58, 235, 10.1016/0022-510X(83)90220-4 Anderton, 1997, Changes in the ageing brain in health and disease, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci., 352, 1781, 10.1098/rstb.1997.0162 Andrade-Moraes, 2013, Cell number changes in Alzheimer's disease relate to dementia, not to plaques and tangles, Brain, 136, 3738, 10.1093/brain/awt273 Ankney, 1992, Sex differences in relative brain size: the mismeasure of woman, too?, Intelligence, 16, 329, 10.1016/0160-2896(92)90013-H Araque, 2001, Dynamic signaling between astrocytes and neurons, Annu. Rev. Physiol., 63, 795, 10.1146/annurev.physiol.63.1.795 Azevedo, 2009, Equal numbers of neuronal and nonneuronal cells make the human brain an isometrically scaled-up primate brain, J. Comp. Neurol., 513, 532, 10.1002/cne.21974 Baddeley, 2001, Is stereology ‘unbiased’?, Trends Neurosci., 24, 375, 10.1016/S0166-2236(00)01833-6 Bahney, 2014, Validation of the isotropic fractionator: comparison with unbiased stereology and DNA extraction for quantification of glial cells, J. Neurosci. Methods, 222, 165, 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2013.11.002 Bahney, 2017, The cellular composition and glia-neuron ratio in the spinal cord of a human and nonhuman primate: comparison with other species and brain regions, Anat. Rec. Baquet, 2009, A comparison of model-based (2D) and design-based (3D) stereological methods for estimating cell number in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) of the C57BL/6J mouse, Neuroscience, 161, 1082, 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.04.031 Baryshnikova, 2006, Two distinct events, section compression and loss of particles (lost caps), contribute to z-axis distortion and bias in optical disector counting, Microsc. Res. Tech., 69, 738, 10.1002/jemt.20345 Basgen, 2006, Comparison of methods for counting cells in the mouse glomerulus, Nephron Exp. Nephrol., 103, e139, 10.1159/000092905 Bass, 1971, Quantitative cytoarchitectonic distribution of neurons, glia, and DNA in rat cerebral cortex, J. Comp. Neurol., 143, 481, 10.1002/cne.901430405 Benes, 2001, Two-dimensional versus three-dimensional cell counting: a practical perspective, Trends Neurosci., 24, 11, 10.1016/S0166-2236(00)01660-X Benes, 2001, Benes and Lange respond: reconciling theory and practice in cell counting, Trends Neurosci., 24, 378, 10.1016/S0166-2236(00)01831-2 Benes, 1993, Neurobiological investigations in cingulate cortex of schizophrenic brain, Schizophr. Bull., 19, 537, 10.1093/schbul/19.3.537 Benes, 1997, Is there evidence for neuronal loss in schizophrenia?, Int. Rev. Psychiatry, 9, 429, 10.1080/09540269775295 Bernstein, 2015, Glial cells as key players in schizophrenia pathology: recent insights and concepts of therapy, Schizophr. Res., 161, 4, 10.1016/j.schres.2014.03.035 Bjugn, 1993, Estimate of the total number of neurons and glial and endothelial cells in the rat spinal cord by means of the optical disector, J. Comp. Neurol., 328, 406, 10.1002/cne.903280307 Blinkov, 1968 Braak, 1986, Ratio of pyramidal cells versus non-pyramidal cells in the human frontal isocortex and changes in ratio with ageing and Alzheimer’s disease, Progress Brain Res., 70, 185, 10.1016/S0079-6123(08)64305-8 Braak, 1994, Morphological criteria for the recognition of Alzheimer's disease and the distribution pattern of cortical changes related to this disorder, Neurobiol. Aging, 15, 355, 10.1016/0197-4580(94)90032-9 Braendgaard, 1990, The total number of neurons in the human neocortex unbiasedly estimated using optical disectors, J. Microsc., 157, 285, 10.1111/j.1365-2818.1990.tb02967.x Brody, 1955, Organization of the cerebral cortex. III. A study of aging in the human cerebral cortex, J. Comp. Neurol., 102, 511, 10.1002/cne.901020206 Brody, 1970, Structural changes in the ageing nervous system, Interdiscipl. Top. Gerontol., 7, 9, 10.1159/000387122 Burish, 2010, Cellular scaling rules for primate spinal cords, Brain Behav. Evol., 76, 45, 10.1159/000319019 Carlo, 2011, Analysis of differential shrinkage in frozen brain sections and its implications for the use of guard zones in stereology, J. Comp. Neurol., 519, 2803, 10.1002/cne.22652 Carlo, 2013, Structural uniformity of neocortex, revisited, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 110, 1488, 10.1073/pnas.1221398110 Charvet, 2015, Systematic, cross-cortex variation in neuron numbers in rodents and primates, Cereb. Cortex, 25, 147, 10.1093/cercor/bht214 Clarke, 1995, Neuron death in vertebrate development: in vitro methods, Methods Cell Biol., 46, 277, 10.1016/S0091-679X(08)61933-0 Clarke, 1992, How inaccurate is the Abercrombie correction factor for cell counts?, Trends Neurosci., 15, 211, 10.1016/0166-2236(92)90036-8 Coggeshall, 1996, Methods for determining numbers of cells and synapses: a case for more uniform standards of review, J. Comp. Neurol., 364, 6, 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19960101)364:1<6::AID-CNE2>3.0.CO;2-9 Coggeshall, 1990, Calibration of methods for determining numbers of dorsal root ganglion cells, J. Neurosci. Methods, 35, 187, 10.1016/0165-0270(90)90123-W Coggeshall, 1992, A consideration of neural counting methods, Trends Neurosci., 15, 9, 10.1016/0166-2236(92)90339-A Colon, 1972, The elderly brain. A quantitative analysis in the cerebral cortex of two cases, Psychiatr. Neurol. Neurochir., 75, 261 Committee on the Conduct of Science, National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 1989, On being a scientist, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 86, 9053 Cotter, 2001, Glial cell abnormalities in major psychiatric disorders: the evidence and implications, Brain Res. Bull., 55, 585, 10.1016/S0361-9230(01)00527-5 Courchesne, 2007, Mapping early brain development in autism, Neuron, 56, 399, 10.1016/j.neuron.2007.10.016 Courville, 1955 Coyle, 2000, Mind glue: implications of glial cell biology for psychiatry, Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 57, 90, 10.1001/archpsyc.57.1.90 Cragg, 1975, The density of synapses and neurons in normal, mentally defective ageing human brains, Brain, 98, 81, 10.1093/brain/98.1.81 Cruz-Orive, 1994, Toward a more objective biology, Neurobiol. Aging, 15, 377, 10.1016/0197-4580(94)90039-6 Curcio, 1982, Morphology of the aging central nervous system: not all downhill, vol. 3, 7 DeCasien, 2017, Primate brain size is predicted by diet but not sociality, Nat. Ecol. Evol., 1, 0112, 10.1038/s41559-017-0112 Deary, 2012, Intelligence, Annu. Rev. Psychol., 63, 453, 10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100353 Delaloye, 2009, Does the physical disector method provide an accurate estimation of sensory neuron number in rat dorsal root ganglia?, J. Neurosci. Methods, 176, 290, 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2008.09.004 Devaney, 1980, Neuron loss in the aging visual cortex of man, J. Gerontol., 35, 836, 10.1093/geronj/35.6.836 Diamond, 1985, On the brain of a scientist: Albert Einstein, Exp. Neurol., 88, 198, 10.1016/0014-4886(85)90123-2 Dicke, 2016, Neuronal factors determining high intelligence, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci., 371, 20150180, 10.1098/rstb.2015.0180 Dobbing, 1973, Quantitative growth and development of human brain, Arch. Dis. Child., 48, 757, 10.1136/adc.48.10.757 Dorph-Petersen, 2011, Stereological approaches to identifying neuropathology in psychosis, Biol. Psychiatry, 69, 113, 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.04.030 Dorph-Petersen, 2017, Postmortem structural studies of the thalamus in schizophrenia, Schizophr. Res., 180, 28, 10.1016/j.schres.2016.08.007 Dorph-Petersen, 2007, Primary visual cortex volume and total neuron number are reduced in schizophrenia, J. Comp. Neurol., 501, 290, 10.1002/cne.21243 Duyckaerts, 2009, Classification and basic pathology of Alzheimer disease, Acta Neuropathol., 118, 5, 10.1007/s00401-009-0532-1 Elsayed, 2015, A new outlook on mental illnesses: glial involvement beyond the glue, Front. Cell. Neurosci., 9, 468, 10.3389/fncel.2015.00468 Eriksen, 2007, Total neocortical cell number in the mysticete brain, Anat. Rec. (Hoboken), 290, 83, 10.1002/ar.20404 Everall, 1997, Comparison of two quantitative methods for the evaluation of neuronal number in the frontal cortex in Alzheimer disease, J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol., 56, 1202, 10.1097/00005072-199711000-00004 Fabricius, 2007, No changes in neocortical cell volumes or glial cell numbers in chronic alcoholic subjects compared to control subjects, Alcohol Alcohol., 42, 400, 10.1093/alcalc/agm007 Fabricius, 2013, Effect of age on neocortical brain cells in 90+ year old human females – a cell counting study, Neurobiol. Aging, 34, 91, 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2012.06.009 Farel, 2002, Trust, but verify: the necessity of empirical verification in quantitative neurobiology, Anat. Rec., 269, 157, 10.1002/ar.10111 Fields, 2009 Fields, 2013 Fischer, 2012, Changes in neuronal DNA content variation in the human brain during aging, Aging Cell, 11, 628, 10.1111/j.1474-9726.2012.00826.x Flood, 1994, Thoughts on no neocortical neuronal loss but loss of volume in AD, Neurobiol. Aging, 15, 363, 10.1016/0197-4580(94)90035-3 Friede, 1954, Der quantitative Anteil der Glia and der Cortexentwicklung, Acta Anat., 20, 290, 10.1159/000140905 Gómez-Isla, 1996, Profound loss of layer II entorhinal cortex neurons occurs in very mild Alzheimer's disease, J. Neurosci., 16, 4491, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.16-14-04491.1996 Gómez-Isla, 1997, Neuronal loss correlates with but exceeds neurofibrillary tangles in Alzheimer's disease, Ann. Neurol., 41, 17, 10.1002/ana.410410106 García-Amado, 2012, Stereological analysis of neuron, glial and endothelial cell numbers in the human amygdaloid complex, PLoS One, 7, e38692, 10.1371/journal.pone.0038692 García-Cabezas, 2016, Distinction of neurons, glia and endothelial cells in the cerebral cortex: an algorithm based on cytological features, Front. Neuroanat., 10, 107, 10.3389/fnana.2016.00107 Gardella, 2003, Differential tissue shrinkage and compression in the z-axis: implications for optical dissector counting in vibratome-, plastic- and cryosections, J. Neurosci. Methods, 124, 45, 10.1016/S0165-0270(02)00363-1 Gardi, 2008, The proportionator: unbiased stereological estimation using biased automatic image analysis and non-uniform probability proportional to size sampling, Comput. Biol. Med., 38, 313, 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2007.11.002 Gardi, 2008, Automatic sampling for unbiased and efficient stereological estimation using the proportionator in biological studies, J. Microsc., 230, 108, 10.1111/j.1365-2818.2008.01963.x Geuna, 2015, Update on stereology for light microscopy, Cell Tissue Res., 360, 5, 10.1007/s00441-015-2143-6 Giannaris, 2012, A stereological study of the numbers of neurons and glia in the primary visual cortex across the lifespan of male and female rhesus monkeys, J. Comp. Neurol., 520, 3492, 10.1002/cne.23101 Guillery, 1997, Quantification without pontification: choosing a method for counting objects in sectioned tissues, J. Comp. Neurol., 386, 2, 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19970915)386:1<2::AID-CNE2>3.0.CO;2-6 Guillery, 2002, On counting and counting errors, J. Comp. Neurol., 447, 1, 10.1002/cne.10221 Han, 2013, Forebrain engraftment by human glial progenitor cells enhances synaptic plasticity and learning in adult mice, Cell Stem Cell, 12, 342, 10.1016/j.stem.2012.12.015 Hanley, 1974, ‘Neuronal fall-out’ in the ageing brain: a critical review of the quantitative data, Age Ageing, 3, 133, 10.1093/ageing/3.3.133 Hansen, 1991, Alcohol-induced brain changes in dogs, Arch. Neurol., 48, 939, 10.1001/archneur.1991.00530210065025 Harding, 1997, Chronic alcohol consumption does not cause hippocampal neuron loss in humans, Hippocampus, 7, 78, 10.1002/(SICI)1098-1063(1997)7:1<78::AID-HIPO8>3.0.CO;2-3 Hare, 2017, Survival of the friendliest: homo sapiens evolved via selection for prosociality, Annu. Rev. Psychol., 68, 155, 10.1146/annurev-psych-010416-044201 Harper, 1990, Neuropathology of alcoholism, Alcohol Alcohol., 25, 207, 10.1093/oxfordjournals.alcalc.a044994 Harper, 2005, Ethanol and brain damage, Curr. Opin. Pharmacol., 5, 73, 10.1016/j.coph.2004.06.011 Harper, 1985, Brain shrinkage in chronic alcoholics: a pathological study, Br. Med. J. (Clin. Res. Ed.), 290, 501, 10.1136/bmj.290.6467.501 Harper, 1987, Are we drinking our neurones away?, Br,. Med. J. (Clin. Res. Ed.), 294, 534, 10.1136/bmj.294.6571.534 Harper, 1983, The incidence of Wernicke's encephalopathy in Australia—a neuropathological study of 131 cases, J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 46, 593, 10.1136/jnnp.46.7.593 Harper, 1998, The neuropathology of alcohol-specific brain damage, or does alcohol damage the brain?, J,. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol., 57, 101, 10.1097/00005072-199802000-00001 Harrison, 1999, The neuropathology of schizophrenia: a critical review of the data and their interpretation, Brain, 122, 593, 10.1093/brain/122.4.593 Hatton, 1999, Analysis of cell death in the trochlear nucleus of the chick embryo: calibration of the optical disector counting method reveals systematic bias, J. Comp. Neurol., 409, 169, 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19990628)409:2<169::AID-CNE1>3.0.CO;2-O Haug, 1984, The significance of morphometric procedures in the investigation of age changes in cytoarchitectonic structures of human brain, J. Hirnforsch., 25, 353 Haug, 1980, Die Abhängigkeit der Einbettungsschrumpfung des Gehirngewebes vom Lebensalter, Verh. Anat. Ges., 74, 699 Haug, 1984, Der Einfluss der säkularen Akzeleration auf das Hirngewicht des Menschen und dessen Änderung wahrend der Alterung, Gegenbaurs Morphol. Jahrb., 130, 481 Haug, 1986, History of neuromorphometry, J. Neurosci. Methods, 18, 1, 10.1016/0165-0270(86)90110-X Haug, 1987, Brain sizes, surfaces, and neuronal sizes of the cortex cerebri: a stereological investigation of man and his variability and a comparison with some mammals (primates, whales, marsupials, insectivores, and one elephant), Am. J. Anat., 180, 126, 10.1002/aja.1001800203 Hawkins, 1957, Glia/nerve cell index for cortex of the whale, Science, 126, 76, 10.1126/science.126.3263.76 Heller, 1954, Desoxyribonucleic acid content and cell density in brain and human brain tumors, Can. J. Biochem. Physiol., 32, 584, 10.1139/y54-065 Henderson, 1980, Cell counts in human cerebral cortex in normal adults throughout life using an image analysing computer, J. Neurol. Sci., 46, 113, 10.1016/0022-510X(80)90048-9 Herculano-Houzel, 2005, Isotropic fractionator: a simple, rapid method for the quantification of total cell and neuron numbers in the brain, J. Neurosci., 25, 2518, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4526-04.2005 Herculano-Houzel, 2007, Cellular scaling rules for primate brains, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 104, 3562, 10.1073/pnas.0611396104 Herculano-Houzel, 2015, How to count cells: the advantages and disadvantages of the isotropic fractionator compared with stereology, Cell Tissue Res., 360, 29, 10.1007/s00441-015-2127-6 Herculano-Houzel, 2009, The human brain in numbers: a linearly scaled-up primate brain, Front. Hum. Neurosci., 3, 31, 10.3389/neuro.09.031.2009 Herculano-Houzel, 2011, Not all brains are made the same: new views on brain scaling in evolution, Brain Behav. Evol., 78, 22, 10.1159/000327318 Herculano-Houzel, 2012, The remarkable, yet not extraordinary, human brain as a scaled-up primate brain and its associated cost, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 109, 10661, 10.1073/pnas.1201895109 Herculano-Houzel, 2014, The glia/neuron ratio: how it varies uniformly across brain structures and species and what that means for brain physiology and evolution, Glia, 62, 1377, 10.1002/glia.22683 Herculano-Houzel, 2017, Numbers of neurons as biological correlates of cognitive capability, Curr. Opin. Behav. Sci., 16, 1, 10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.02.004 Hilgetag, 2009, Are there ten times more glia than neurons in the brain?, Brain Struct. Funct., 213, 365, 10.1007/s00429-009-0202-z Hof, 2009 Hof, 2003, Loss and altered spatial distribution of oligodendrocytes in the superior frontal gyrus in schizophrenia, Biol. Psychiatry, 53, 1075, 10.1016/S0006-3223(03)00237-3 Hosseini-Sharifabad, 2007, Design-based estimation of neuronal number and individual neuronal volume in the rat hippocampus, J. Neurosci. Methods, 162, 206, 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2007.01.009 Howard, 1998 Hyden, 1960, The neuron, vol. 4, 215 1967, Dynamic aspects of the neuron-glia relationship – a study with microchemical methods, 179 Hyman, 1994, Alzheimer's disease is a laminar, regional, and neural system specific disease, not a global brain disease, Neurobiol. Aging, 15, 353, 10.1016/0197-4580(94)90031-0 Ioannidis, 2012, Why science is not necessarily self-correcting, Perspect. Psychol. Sci., 7, 645, 10.1177/1745691612464056 Jarrett, 2015 Jensen, 1993, Do alcoholics drink their neurons away?, Lancet, 342, 1201, 10.1016/0140-6736(93)92185-V Jensen, 1980 Jerison, 1973 Johnson, 1972, Neuron survival in the aging mouse, Exp. Gerontol., 7, 111, 10.1016/0531-5565(72)90005-8 Kühnel, 2003, In memoriam des Anatomen Herbert W. Haug (1920–2002), Ann. Anat., 185, 293, 10.1016/S0940-9602(03)80044-4 Kandel, 1981 Kandel, 1985 Kandel, 1991 Kandel, 2000 Kaplan, 2010, Calibration of the stereological estimation of the number of myelinated axons in the rat sciatic nerve: a multicenter study, J. Neurosci. Methods, 187, 90, 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2010.01.001 Karlsen, 2011, Total numbers of neurons and glial cells in cortex and basal ganglia of aged brains with Down syndrome – a stereological study, Cereb. Cortex, 21, 2519, 10.1093/cercor/bhr033 Kaur, 2018, Comparison of unbiased strereological estimation of total number of cresyl violet stained neurons and parvalbumin positive neurons in the adult human spiral ganglion, J. Chem. Neuroanat., 10.1016/j.jchemneu.2017.06.004 Kausler, 2007 Kettenmann, 2013, Glial cells, 475 Koob, 2009 Korbo, 2004, No evidence for loss of hippocampal neurons in non-Alzheimer dementia patients, Acta Neurol. Scand., 109, 132, 10.1034/j.1600-0404.2003.00182.x Kordower, 2013, Disease duration and the integrity of the nigrostriatal system in Parkinson's disease, Brain, 136, 2419, 10.1093/brain/awt192 Kordower, 2000, Making the counts count: the stereology revolution, J. Chem. Neuroanat., 20, 1, 10.1016/S0891-0618(00)00079-X Kril, 1999, Brain shrinkage in alcoholics: a decade on and what have we learned?, Prog. Neurobiol., 58, 381, 10.1016/S0301-0082(98)00091-4 Kril, 1989, Neuronal counts from four cortical regions of alcoholic brains, Acta Neuropathol., 7, 200, 10.1007/BF00294379 Kubis, 2000, Preservation of midbrain catecholaminergic neurons in very old human subjects, Brain, 123, 366, 10.1093/brain/123.2.366 Kuffler, 1976 Lent, 2012, How many neurons do you have? Some dogmas of quantitative neuroscience under revision, Eur. J. Neurosci., 35, 1, 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2011.07923.x Leuba, 1994, Changes in volume, surface estimate, three-dimensional shape and total number of neurons of the human primary visual cortex from midgestation until old age, Anat. Embryol. (Berl.), 190, 351, 10.1007/BF00187293 Leuba, 1994, Visual cortex in Alzheimer's disease: occurrence of neuronal death and glial proliferation, and correlation with pathological hallmarks, Neurobiol. Aging, 15, 29, 10.1016/0197-4580(94)90142-2 Lyck, 2009, An empirical analysis of the precision of estimating the numbers of neurons and glia in human neocortex using a fractionator-design with sub-sampling, J. Neurosci. Methods, 182, 143, 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2009.06.003 Lyness, 2003, Neuron loss in key cholinergic and aminergic nuclei in Alzheimer disease: a meta-analysis, Neurobiol. Aging, 24, 1, 10.1016/S0197-4580(02)00057-X Mann, 1996, Pyramidal nerve cell loss in Alzheimer's disease, Neurodegeneration, 5, 423, 10.1006/neur.1996.0057 Marino, 2006, Absolute brain size: did we throw the baby out with the bathwater?, Proc,. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 103, 13563, 10.1073/pnas.0606337103 Mayhew, 1996, ‘If you assume, you can make an ass out of u and me’: a decade of the disector for stereological counting of particles in 3D space, J. Anat., 188, 1 McDaniel, 2005, Big-brained people are smarter: a meta-analysis of the relationship between in vivo brain volume and intelligence, Intelligence, 33, 337, 10.1016/j.intell.2004.11.005 McKeown, 2006, US suicide rates by age group, 1970–2002: an examination of recent trends, Am. J. Public Health, 96, 1744, 10.2105/AJPH.2005.066951 Meehan, 1991, Suicides among older United States residents: epidemiologic characteristics and trends, Am. J. Public Health, 81, 1198, 10.2105/AJPH.81.9.1198 Miller, 1977, Evidence for a secular increase in human brain weight during the past century, Ann. Hum. Biol., 4, 253, 10.1080/03014467700007142 Miller, 2014, Three counting methods agree on cell and neuron number in chimpanzee primary visual cortex, Front. Neuroanat., 8, 36, 10.3389/fnana.2014.00036 Morgan, 2010, Microglial activation and increased microglial density observed in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in autism, Biol. Psychiatry, 68, 368, 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.05.024 Morrison, 1997, Life and death of neurons in the aging brain, Science, 278, 412, 10.1126/science.278.5337.412 Mountjoy, 1983, Cortical neuronal counts in normal elderly controls and demented patients, Neurobiol. Aging, 4, 1, 10.1016/0197-4580(83)90048-9 Mouton, 1994, Absolute number and size of pigmented locus coeruleus neurons in young and aged individuals, J. Chem. Neuroanat., 7, 185, 10.1016/0891-0618(94)90028-0 Mouton, 2002 Mufson, 1994, Lack of neocortical nerve cell loss in Alzheimer's disease: reality or methodological artifact, Neurobiol. Aging, 15, 361, 10.1016/0197-4580(94)90034-5 Mullen, 1992, NeuN, a neuronal specific nuclear protein in vertebrates, Development, 116, 201, 10.1242/dev.116.1.201 Nedergaard, 2003, New roles for astrocytes: redefining the functional architecture of the brain, Trends Neurosci., 26, 523, 10.1016/j.tins.2003.08.008 Ngwenya, 2017, Comparison of estimates of neuronal number obtained using the isotropic fractionator method and unbiased stereology in day old chicks (Gallus domesticus), J. Neurosci. Methods, 287, 39, 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2017.05.025 Nielsen, 2008, Neuron and glial cell numbers in the mediodorsal thalamic nucleus in brains of schizophrenic subjects, Image Anal. Stereol., 27, 133, 10.5566/ias.v27.p133-141 Nurnberger, 1957, The cell density of neural tissues: direct counting method and possible applications as a biologic referent, Prog. Neurobiol., 2, 100 Nurnberger, 1958, Direct enumeration of cells of the brain, 193 Ongür, 1998, Glial reduction in the subgenual prefrontal cortex in mood disorders, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 95, 13290, 10.1073/pnas.95.22.13290 Pakkenberg, 1997, Neocortical neuron number in humans: effect of sex and age, J. Comp. Neurol., 384, 312, 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19970728)384:2<312::AID-CNE10>3.0.CO;2-K Pakkenberg, 2003, Aging and the human neocortex, Exp. Gerontol., 38, 95, 10.1016/S0531-5565(02)00151-1 Pakkenberg, 1990, Pronounced reduction of total neuron number in mediodorsal thalamic nucleus and nucleus accumbens in schizophrenics, Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 47, 1023, 10.1001/archpsyc.1990.01810230039007 Pakkenberg, 1993, Leucotomized schizophrenics lose neurons in the mediodorsal thalamic nucleus, Neuropathol. Appl. Neurobiol., 19, 373, 10.1111/j.1365-2990.1993.tb00457.x Pakkenberg, 1993, Total nerve cell number in neocortex in chronic schizophrenics and controls estimated using optical disectors, Biol. Psychiatry, 34, 768, 10.1016/0006-3223(93)90065-L Palmen, 2004, Neuropathological findings in autism, Brain, 127, 2572, 10.1093/brain/awh287 Pannese, 2011, Morphological changes in nerve cells during normal aging, Brain Struct. Funct., 216, 85, 10.1007/s00429-011-0308-y Pearce, 2013, New insights into differences in brain organization between Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans, Proc. Biol. Sci., 280, 20130168, 10.1098/rspb.2013.0168 Pelvig, 2003, Neocortical glial cell numbers in Alzheimer's disease: a stereological study, Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord., 16, 212, 10.1159/000072805 Pelvig, 2008, Neocortical glial cell numbers in human brains, Neurobiol. Aging, 29, 1754, 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2007.04.013 Peters, 1998, Feature article: are neurons lost from the primate cerebral cortex during normal aging?, Cereb. Cortex, 8, 295, 10.1093/cercor/8.4.295 Pietschnig, 2015, Meta-analysis of associations between human brain volume and intelligence differences: how strong are they and what do they mean?, Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 57, 411, 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.09.017 Popken, 1996, Reliability and validity of the physical disector method for estimating neuron number, J. Neurobiol., 31, 166, 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4695(199610)31:2<166::AID-NEU3>3.0.CO;2-9 Popken, 2000, Subnucleus-specific loss of neurons in medial thalamus of schizophrenics, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 97, 9276, 10.1073/pnas.150243397 Pover, 1991, Verification of the disector method for counting neurons, with comments on the empirical method, Anat. Rec., 231, 573, 10.1002/ar.1092310419 Price, 1986, New perspectives on Alzheimer's disease, Annu. Rev. Neurosci., 9, 489, 10.1146/annurev.ne.09.030186.002421 Rajkowska, 2000, Postmortem studies in mood disorders indicate altered numbers of neurons and glial cells, Biol. Psychiatry, 48, 766, 10.1016/S0006-3223(00)00950-1 Rajkowska, 2002, Cell pathology in mood disorders, Semin. Clin. Neuropsychiatry, 7, 281, 10.1053/scnp.2002.35228 Regeur, 1994, No global neocortical nerve cell loss in brains from patients with senile dementia of Alzheimer's type, Neurobiol. Aging, 15, 347, 10.1016/0197-4580(94)90030-2 Ridgway, 2016, Comparison of dolphins' body and brain measurements with four other groups of cetaceans reveals great diversity, Brain Behav. Evol., 88, 235, 10.1159/000454797 Roth, 2005, Evolution of the brain and intelligence, Trends Cogn. Sci., 9, 250, 10.1016/j.tics.2005.03.005 Rowland, 1949, Cell concentration and laminar thickness in the frontal cortex of psychotic patients; studies on cortes removed at operation, J. Comp. Neurol., 90, 255, 10.1002/cne.900900302 Rushton, 2009, Whole brain size and general mental ability: a review, Int. J. Neurosci., 119, 691, 10.1080/00207450802325843 Saini, 2017 Saper, 1999, Book reviews unbiased stereology: three-dimensional measurement in microscopy, Trends Neurosci., 22, 94, 10.1016/S0166-2236(98)01368-X Schmalbruch, 1987, The number of neurons in dorsal root ganglia L4-L6 of the rat, Anat. Rec., 219, 315, 10.1002/ar.1092190313 Schmitz, 2000, Recommendations for straightforward and rigorous methods of counting neurons based on a computer simulation approach, J. Chem. Neuroanat., 20, 93, 10.1016/S0891-0618(00)00066-1 Schmitz, 2005, Design-based stereology in neuroscience, Neuroscience, 130, 813, 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2004.08.050 Schmutte, 2009, Stemming the tide of suicide in older white men: a call to action, Am. J. Mens Health, 3, 189, 10.1177/1557988308316555 Sharma, 2014, Changing population of neurons and glia in the human cochlear nucleus with progressive age – a stereological study, J. Anat. Soc. India, 63, 142, 10.1016/j.jasi.2014.11.002 Sherwood, 2006, Evolution of increased glia-neuron ratios in the human frontal cortex, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 103, 13606, 10.1073/pnas.0605843103 Soper, 1988, The number of neurons in the brain: how we report what we do not know, Tech. Psychol., 15, 153, 10.1207/s15328023top1503_16 St Wecker, 1994, Hindlimb sensory neuron number increases with body size, J. Comp. Neurol., 342, 430, 10.1002/cne.903420309 Stark, 2005, Measuring morphological and cellular changes in Alzheimer's dementia: a review emphasizing stereology, Curr. Alzheimer Res., 2, 449, 10.2174/156720505774330528 Stolzenburg, 1989, Size and density of glial and neuronal cells within the cerebral neocortex of various insectivorian species, Glia, 2, 78, 10.1002/glia.440020203 Tandrup, 2004, Unbiased estimates of number and size of rat dorsal root ganglion cells in studies of structure and cell survival, J. Neurocytol., 33, 173, 10.1023/B:NEUR.0000030693.91881.53 Terry, 1981, Some morphometric aspects of the brain in senile dementia of the Alzheimer type, Ann. Neurol., 10, 184, 10.1002/ana.410100209 Terry, 1987, Neocortical cell counts in normal human adult aging, Ann. Neurol., 21, 530, 10.1002/ana.410210603 Thune, 2000, Stereological studies of the schizophrenic brain, Brain Res. Rev., 31, 200, 10.1016/S0165-0173(99)00038-7 Tiedemann, 1836, On the brain of the Negro, compared with that of the European and the Orang-Outang, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., 126, 497, 10.1098/rstl.1836.0025 Todtenkopf, 2005, A cross-study meta-analysis and three-dimensional comparison of cell counting in the anterior cingulate cortex of schizophrenic and bipolar brain, Schizophr. Res., 73, 79, 10.1016/j.schres.2004.08.018 Tower, 1973, The activities of butyrylcholinesterase and carbonic anhydrase, the rate of anaerobic glycolysis, and the question of a constant density of glial cells in cerebral cortices of various mammalian species from mouse to whale, J. Neurochem., 20, 269, 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1973.tb12126.x Tsai, 2009, Correlations of neuronal and microvascular densities in murine cortex revealed by direct counting and colocalization of nuclei and vessels, J. Neurosci., 29, 14553, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3287-09.2009 Uylings, 2002, Neuronal changes in normal human aging and Alzheimer's disease, Brain Cogn., 49, 268, 10.1006/brcg.2001.1500 Vawter, 2000, Neuropathology of bipolar disorder, Biol. Psychiatry, 48, 486, 10.1016/S0006-3223(00)00978-1 Verkhratsky, 2007 Verkhratsky, 2014, Neuroglia in ageing and disease, Cell Tissue Res., 357, 493, 10.1007/s00441-014-1814-z Villa, 2014, Neandertal demise: an archaeological analysis of the modern human superiority complex, PLoS One, 9, e96424, 10.1371/journal.pone.0096424 von Bartheld, 1992, Development and distribution of noradrenergic and cholinergic neurons and their trophic phenotypes in the avian ceruleus complex and midbrain tegmentum, J. Comp. Neurol., 320, 479, 10.1002/cne.903200406 von Bartheld, 1993, Development of the mesencephalic nucleus of the trigeminal nerve in chick embryos: target innervation, neurotrophin receptors, and cell death, J. Comp. Neurol., 328, 185, 10.1002/cne.903280203 von Bartheld, 2016, The search for true numbers of neurons and glial cells in the human brain: a review of 150 years of cell counting, J. Comp. Neurol., 524, 3865, 10.1002/cne.24040 von Bartheld, 1999, Systematic bias in an unbiased neuronal counting technique, Anat. Rec., 257, 119, 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0185(19990815)257:4<119::AID-AR2>3.0.CO;2-8 von Bartheld, 2001, Comparison of 2-D and 3-D counting: the need for calibration and common sense, Trends Neurosci., 24, 504, 10.1016/S0166-2236(00)01960-3 von Bartheld, 2002, Counting particles in tissue sections: choices of methods and importance of calibration to minimize biases, Histol. Histopathol., 17, 639 von Bartheld, 2012, Distribution of particles in the z-axis of tissue sections: relevance for counting methods, Neuroquantology, 10, 66 Vonsattel, 1998, Huntington disease, J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol., 57, 369, 10.1097/00005072-199805000-00001 Vostrikov, 2007, Deficit of perineuronal oligodendrocytes in the prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia and mood disorders, Schizophr. Res., 94, 273, 10.1016/j.schres.2007.04.014 Walker, 1980, Neuronal loss in hippocampus induced by prolonged ethanol consumption in rats, Science, 209, 711, 10.1126/science.7394532 Walloe, 2014, Stereological estimation of total cell numbers in the human cerebral and cerebellar cortex, Front. Hum. Neurosci., 8, 508 Ward, 2008, Optical disector counting in cryosections and vibratome sections underestimates particle numbers: effects of tissue quality, Microsc. Res. Tech., 71, 60, 10.1002/jemt.20525 West, 1993, New stereological methods for counting neurons, Neurobiol. Aging, 14, 275, 10.1016/0197-4580(93)90112-O West, 1993, Regionally specific loss of neurons in the aging human hippocampus, Neurobiol. Aging, 14, 287, 10.1016/0197-4580(93)90113-P West, 1999, Stereological methods for estimating the total number of neurons and synapses: issues of precision and bias, Trends Neurosci., 22, 51, 10.1016/S0166-2236(98)01362-9 Williams, 1988, The control of neuron number, Annu. Rev. Neurosci., 11, 423, 10.1146/annurev.ne.11.030188.002231 Williams, 1988, Three-dimensional counting: accurate and direct method to estimate numbers of cells in sectioned material, J. Comp. Neurol., 278, 344, 10.1002/cne.902780305 Williams, 2003, Counting cells in sectioned material: a suite of techniques, tools, and tips, Curr. Protoc. Neurosci., 10.1002/0471142301.ns0111s24 Witelson, 1999, The exceptional brain of Albert Einstein, Lancet, 35, 2149, 10.1016/S0140-6736(98)10327-6 Wynn, 2011 Yuhas, 2012 Zhu, 2015, Comparison of unbiased estimation of neuronal number in the rat hippocampus with different staining methods, J. Neurosci. Methods, 254, 73, 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2015.07.022 Zorzetto, 2012