Mycotoxins
Tóm tắt
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by microfungi that are capable of causing disease and death in humans and other animals. Because of their pharmacological activity, some mycotoxins or mycotoxin derivatives have found use as antibiotics, growth promotants, and other kinds of drugs; still others have been implicated as chemical warfare agents. This review focuses on the most important ones associated with human and veterinary diseases, including aflatoxin, citrinin, ergot akaloids, fumonisins, ochratoxin A, patulin, trichothecenes, and zearalenone.
Từ khóa
Tài liệu tham khảo
Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1994 60
Abramson D. E. Usleber and E. Marlbauer. 2001. Immunochemical method for citrinin. p. 195-204. In M. W. Trucksess and A. F. Pohland (ed.) Mycotoxin protocols. Humana Press Totowa N.J.
Beardall J. M. and J. D. Miller. 1994. Disease in humans with mycotoxins as possible causes p. 487-539. In J. D. Miller and H. L. Trenholm (ed.) Mycotoxins in grains. Compounds other than aflatoxin. Eagan Press St. Paul Minn.
Beasley V. R. (ed.). 1989. Trichothecene mycotoxicosis: pathophysiologic effects vol. I. CRC Press Boca Raton Fla.
Belkin L. 2001. Haunted by mold. New York Times Magazine Aug. 12 p. 62 64-65.
Betina V. 1989. Bioactive molecules vol. 9. Mycotoxins: chemical biological and environmental aspects. Elsevier Amsterdam The Netherlands.
Betina V. (ed.). 1984. Mycotoxins: production isolation separation and purification. Elsevier Amsterdam The Netherlands
Bezuidenhout, S. C., W. C. A. Gelderblom, C. P. Gorst-Allman, R. M. Horak, W. F. O. Marasas; G. Spiteller, and R. Vleggaar. 1988. Structure elucidation of the fumonisins, mycotoxins from Fusarium moniliforme.J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun.1988:743-745.
Bhat, R. V., P. H. Shetty, R. P. Amruth, and R. V. Sudershan. 1997. A foodborne disease outbreak due to the consumption of moldy sorghum and maize containing fumonisin mycotoxins. J. Clin. Toxicol.35:249-255.
Bhatnagar D. E. B. Lillehoj and D. K. Arora. 1992. Handbook of applied mycology vol. 5. Mycotoxins in ecological systems. Marcel Dekker Inc. New York N.Y.
Blackwell B. A. O. E. Edwards A. Fruchier J. W. ApSimon and J. D. Miller. 1996. NMR structural studies of fumonisin B 1 and related compounds from Fusarium moniliforme p. 75-91 In L. S. Jackson J. W. DeVries and L. B. Bullerman (ed.) Fumonisins in food. Plenum Press New York N.Y.
Blout, W. P. 1961. Turkey “X” disease. Turkeys9:52, 55-58, 61, 77.
Brown R. L. D. Bhatnagar T. E. Cleveland and J. W. Cary. 1998. Recent advances in preharvest prevention of mycotoxin contamination p. 351-379. In K. K. Sinha and D. Bhatnagar (ed.) Mycotoxins in agriculture and food safety. Marcel Dekker Inc. New York N.Y.
Cabellero-Granado, F. J., P. Viciana, E. Cordero, M. J. Gomez-Vera, M. del Nozal, and L. F. Opez-Cortes. 1997. Ergotism related to concurrent administration of ergotamine tartrate and ritonavir in an AIDS patient. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother.41:1297.
Calderone R. A. and R. L. Cihlar (ed.). 2002. Fungal pathogenesis: principles and clinical applications. Marcel Dekker Inc. New York N.Y.
Carlton W. W. and J. Tuite. 1977. Metabolites of P. viridicatum toxicology p. 525-555. In J. V. Rodricks C. W. Hesseltine and M. A. Mehlman (ed.) Mycotoxins in human and animal health. Pathotox Publications. Inc. Park Forest South Ill.
Cary J. W. P.-K. Chang and D. Bhatnagar. 2001. Clustered metabolic pathway genes in filamentous fungi p. 165-198. In G. G. Khachatourians and D. K. Arora (ed.) Applied mycology and biotechnology vol. I. Agriculture and food production. Elsevier Science Amsterdam The Netherlands.
Castegnaro, M., H. Barsch and I. Chernozemsky. 1987. Endemic nephropathy and urinary tract tumors in the Balkans. Cancer Res.47:3606-3609.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1994. Acute pulmonary hemorrhage/hemosiderosis among infants—-Cleveland, Ohio, January 1993-November 1994. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep.43:881-883.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2000. Update: pulmonary hemorrhage/hemosiderosis among infants—- Cleveland, Ohio, 1993-1999. Morb. Mortal. Wkly Rep.49:180-184.
Chu F. S. 1991. Current immunochemical methods for mycotoxin analysis p. 140-157. In M. Vanderlaan L. H. Stanker B. E. Watkins and D. W. Roberts (ed.). Immunoassays for trace chemical analysis: monitoring toxic chemicals in humans food and the environment. American Chemical Society Washington D.C.
Chu F. S. 1998. Mycotoxins—occurrence and toxic effect p. 858-869. In M. Sadler J. J. Strain and B. Caballero (ed.) Encyclopedia of human nutrition. Academic Press New York N.Y.
Chu, F. S. 1974. Studies on ochratoxins. Crit. Rev. Toxicol.2:499-524.
Chu, F. S. 1997. Trichothecene mycotoxicoses. Encyclopedia Hum. Biol.8:511-522.
Ciegler A. 1986. Mycotoxins: a new class of chemical weapons. NBC Defense & Technol. Int. April 1986 p. 52-57.
Ciegler A. 1977. Patulin p. 609-624. In J. V. Rodricks C. W. Hesseltine and M. A. Mehlman (ed.) Mycotoxins in human and animal health. Pathotox Publishers Inc. Park Forest South Ill.
Ciegler A. R. W. Detroy and E. B. Lillejoj. 1971. Patulin penicillic acid and other carcinogenic lactones p. 409-434. In A. Ciegler S. Kadis and S. J. Ajl (ed.) Microbial toxins vol. VI: fungal toxins. Academic Press. New York N.Y.
Ciegler A. S. Kadis and S. J. Ajl (ed.). 1971. Microbial toxins vol. VI: fungal toxins. Academic Press. New York N.Y.
Cleveland T. E. and D. Bhatnagar. 1992. Molecular strategies for reducing aflatoxin levels in crops before harvest p. 205-228. In D. Bhatnagar and T. E. Cleveland (ed.) Molecular approaches to improving food quality and safety. Van Nostrand Reinhold New York N.Y.
Cole R. J. and R. H. Cox. 1981. Handbook of toxic fungal metabolites. Academic Press New York N.Y.
Cook R. 1996. Acceptable risk. Barkley New York N.Y.
Cotty P. J. P. Bayman D. S. Egel and K. S. Elias. 1994. Agriculture aflatoxins and Aspergillus p. 1-27. In K. A. Powell A. Renwick and J. F. Peberdy (ed.) The genus Aspergillus . Plenum Press New York N.Y.
Coulombe R. A. Jr. 1994. Nonhepatic disposition and effects of aflatoxin B1 p. 89-110. In D. L. Eaton and J. D. Groopman (ed.) The toxicology of aflatoxins: human health veterinary and agricultural significance. Academic Press San Diego Calif.
Council for Agricultural Science and Technology. 1989. Mycotoxins. Economic and health risks. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology Task Force Report. No. 116. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology Ames Iowa
Creppy, E. E. 1999. Human ochratoxicosis. J. Toxicol. Toxin Rev.18:277-293.
Cullen J. M. and P. N. Newberne. 1994. Acute heptoxotoxicity of aflatoxins p. 3-26. In D. L. Eaton and J. J. Groopman (ed.) The toxicity of aflatoxins. Human health veterinary and agricultural significance. Academic Press San Diego.
Dearborn, D. G., I. Yike, W. G. Sorenson, M. J. Miller, and R. A. Etzel. 1999. Overview of investigation into pulmonary hemorrhage among infants in Cleveland, Ohio. Environ. Health Perspect. Suppl. 3107:495-499.
Detroy R. W. E. B. Lillehoj and A. Ciegler. 1971. Aflatoxin and related compounds p. 3-178. In A. Ciegler S. Kadis and S. J. Ajl (ed.) Microbial toxins vol. VI: fungal toxins. Academic Press New York N.Y.
De Vries J. W. M. W. Trucksess and L. S. Jackson (ed.). 2002. Mycotoxins and food safety. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publications New York N.Y.
Dixon, D. M. M. M. McNeil, M. L. Cohen, B. G. Gellin, and J. R. LaMontagne. 1996. Fungal infections. A growing threat. Public Health Rep.111:226-235.
Dowd D. 1998. Involvement of arthropods in the establishment of mycotoxigenic fungi under field conditions p. 307-350. In K. K. Sinha and D. Bhatnagar (ed.) Mycotoxins in agriculture and food safety. Marcel Dekker Inc. New York N.Y.
Eaton D. L. and J. D. Groopman (ed.). 1994. The toxicology of aflatoxins: human health veterinary and agricultural significance. Academic Press San Diego Calif.
Eaton D. L. and H. S. Ramsdel. 1992. Species and diet related differences in aflatoxin biotransformation p. 157-182. In D. Bhatnagar E. B. Lillehoj and D.K. Arora (ed.) Handbook of applied mycology vol. 5 mycotoxins in ecological systems. Marcel Dekker Inc. New York N.Y.
Environmental Protection Agency. 1991. Sick building syndrome. Indoor Air Quality Fact Sheet 4. Environmental Protection Agency Washington D.C.
Evans G. 1983. The yellow rainmakers. Are chemical weapons being used in Southeast Asia? Verso/Schocken London United Kingdom.
. Feinberg B. and C. S. McLaughlin. 1989. Biochemical mechanism of action of trichothecene mycotoxins p. 27-35. In V. R. Beasley (ed.) Trichothecene mycotoxicoses: pathophysiologic effects vol. I. CRC Press Boca Raton Fla.
Food and Agricultural Organization. 1997. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations food and nutrition paper 64. Worldwide regulations for mycotoxins. A compendium. Food and Agricultural Organization Rome Italy.
Forgacs, J. 1962. Mycotoxicoses—the neglected diseases. Feedstuffs34:124-134.
Forgacs J. 1972. Stachybotryotoxicosis p. 95-128. In S. Kadis A. Ciegler and S. J. Ajl (ed.) Microbial toxins vol. VI: fungal toxins. Academic Press New York N.Y.
Forgacs, J., and W. T. Carll. 1962. Mycotoxicoses. Adv. Vet. Sci.7:273-382.
Fuller J. G. 1968. The day of St. Anthony's fire. Macmillan New York N.Y.
Godish T. 1995. Sick buildings. Definition diagnosis and mitigation Lewis Publications Boca Raton Fla.
Goldblatt L. (ed.). 1969. Aflatoxin. scientific background control and implications. Academic Press New York N.Y.
Graniti A. 1972. The evolution of the toxic concept in plant pathology p. 1-18. In R. K. Wood A. Ballio and A. Graniti (ed.) Phytotoxins in plant diseases. Academic Press New York N.Y.
Graveson S. J. C. Frisvad and R. A. Samson. 1994. Microfungi. Munksgaard Publications Copenhagen Denmark.
Greene G. 1979. The human factor. Everyman's Library London United Kingdom.
Grove, J. F. 1968. The constituents of glutinosin. J. Chem. Soc.1968:810.
Hagler W. M. Jr. N. R. Towers C. J. Mirocha R. M. Eppley and W. L. Bryden. 2001. Zearalenone: mycotoxin or mycoestrogen? p. 321-331. In B. A. Summerell J. F. Leslie D. Backhouse W. L. Bryden and L. W. Burgess (ed.) Fusarium. Paul E. Nelson Memorial Symposium. APS Press St. Paul Minn.
Haller J. S. Jr. 1993. Ergotism p. 718-719. In K. F. Kiple (ed.) The Cambridge world history of human disease. Cambridge University Press Cambridge United Kingdom.
Hanika C. and W. W. Carlton. 1994. Toxicology and pathology of citrinin p. 41-63. In G. C. Llewellyn W. V. Dashek and C. E. O'Rear (ed.) Biodeterioriation research vol. 4. Plenum Press New York N.Y.
Heathcote J. G. and J. R. Hibbert. 1978. Aflatoxins: chemical and biological aspects. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company Amsterdam The Netherlands.
Heenan, C. N., K. J. Shaw, and J. I. Pitt. 1998. Ochratoxin A production by Aspergillus carbonarius and A. niger isolates and detection using coconut cream agar. J. Food Mycol.1:67-72.
Heffron, J. 1999. Endocrine disrupters. Are they an insidious risk to health? Biochemist1999:28-31.
Hendricks, K. A., J. S. Simpson, and R. D. Larsen. 1999. Neural tube defects along the Texas-Mexico border, 1993-1995. Am. J. Epidemiol.149L:1119-1127.
Henry S. H. F. X. Bosch and J. C. Bowers. 2002. Aflatoxin hepatitis and worldwide liver cancer risks p. 229-320. In J. W. DeVries M. W. Trucksess and L. S. Jackson (ed.) Mycotoxins and food safety. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publications. New York N.Y.
Hetherington, A. C., and H. Raistrick. 1931. Studies in the biochemistry of microorganisms. Part XIV. On the production and chemical constitution of a new yellow colouring matter, citrinin, produced from glucose by Penicillium citrinumThom. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. B220B:269-295.
Hicks J. K. K. Shimizu and N. P. Keller. 2002. Genetics and biosynthesis of aflatoxins and sterigmatocystin p. 55-69. In F. Kempken (ed.) The mycota vol. XI. Agricultural applications. Springer-Verlag Berlin Germany.
Hinkley S. F. and B. B. Jarvis. 2001. Chromatographic method for Stachybotrys toxins p. 173-194. In M. W. Trucksess and A. E. Pohland (ed.) Mycotoxin protocols. Humana Press Totowa N.J.
Hintikka E.-L. 1978. Human stachybotryotoxicosis p. 87-89. In T. D. Wyllie and L. G. Morehouse (ed.) Mycotoxic fungi mycotoxins mycotoxicoses vol. 2. Marcel Dekker New York N.Y.
Hodge E. G. P. H. Hidy and H. J. Wehrmeister. 1966. Estrogenic compounds and animal growth promoters. U.S. Patent 3239345.
Hofmann A. 1972. Ergot—a rich source of pharmacologically active substances p. 236-260. In T. Swain (ed.) Plants in the development of modern medicine. Harvard University Press Cambridge Mass.
Hsieh D. 1988. Potential human health hazards of mycotoxins p. 69-80. In S. Natori K. Hashimoto and Y. Ueno (ed.) Mycotoxins and phytotoxins. Third Joint Food and Agriculture Organization/W.H.O./United Nations E? Program International Conference of Mycotoxins. Elsevier Amsterdam The Netherlands.
Hurd R. N. 1977. Structure activity relationships in zearalenones p. 379-391. In J. V. Rodricks C. W. Hesseltine and M. A. Mehlman (ed.) Mycotoxins in human and animal health. Pathotox Publications Inc. Park Forest South Ill.
International Agency for Research on Cancer. 1982. The evaluation of the carcinogenic risk of chemicals to humans. IARC Monograph Supplement 4. International Agency for Research on Cancer Lyon France.
James R. C. 1985. General principles of toxicology p.7-26. In P. L. Williams and J. L. Burson (ed.) Industrial toxicology. Van Nostrand Reinhold New York N.Y.
Jarvis B. B. 2002. Chemistry and toxicology of molds isolated from water damaged buildings p. 43-52. In J. W. deVries M. W. Trucksess and L. S. Jackson (ed.) Mycotoxins and food safety. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publications New York N.Y.
Jelinek, C. P. A., E. Pohland, and G. E. Wood. 1989. Worldwide occurrence of mycotoxins in food and feeds, an update. J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem.72:223-247.
Joffe A. Z. 1978. Fusarium poae and F. sporotrichioides as principal causal agents of alimentary toxic aleukia p. 21-86. In T. D. Wyllie and L. G. Morehouse (ed.) Mycotoxic fungi mycotoxins mycotoxicoses vol. 3. Marcel Dekker New York N.Y.
Joffe A. Z. 1986. Fusarium species: their biology and toxicology. John Wiley and Sons New York N.Y.
Jonsyn-Ellis, F. E. 2000. Seasonal variation in exposure frequency and concentration levels of aflatoxins and ochratoxins in urine samples of boys and girls. Mycopathologia152:35-40.
Kadis S. A. Ciegler and S. J. Ajl (ed.). 1972. Microbial toxins vol. VIII: fungal toxins. Academic Press. New York N.Y.
Krishnamachari, K. A. V. R., R. V. Bhat, V. Nagarajan, and T. M. G. Tilnak. 1975. Hepatitis due to aflatoxicosis. An outbreak in Western India. Lanceti:1061-1063.
Krogh, P. 1976. Mycotoxic nephropathy. Adv. Vet. Sci. Comp. Med.20:147-170.
Krogh P. 1987. Ochratoxin in foods p. 97-110. In P. Krogh (ed.) Mycotoxins in food. Academic Press London United Kingdom.
Kuiper-Goodman T. 1998. Food safety: mycotoxins and phycotoxins in perspective p. 25-48. In M. Miraglia H. van Edmond C. Brera and J. Gilbert (ed.) Mycotoxins and phycotoxins—developments in chemistry toxicology and food safety. Alaken Inc. Fort Collins Colo.
Kuiper-Goodman T. 1994. Prevention of human mycotoxicoses through risk assessment and risk management p. 439-469. In J. D. Miller and H. L. Trenholm (ed.) Mycotoxins in grain. Compounds other than aflatoxin. Eagan Press St. Paul Minn.
Kuiper-Goodman, T., and P. M. Scott. 1989. Risk assessment of the mycotoxin ochratoxin A. Biomed. Environ. Sci.2:179-248.
Kurtz H. J. and J. Mirocha. 1978. Zearalenone (F2) induced estrogenic syndrome in swine p. 1256-1264. In T. D. Wyllie and L. G. Morehouse (ed.) Mycotoxic fungi mycotoxins mycotoxicoses vol. 2. Marcel Dekker New York N.Y.
Lacey J. (ed.). 1985. Trichothecenes and other mycotoxins. John Wiley and Sons Chichester United Kingdom.
Leslie J. F. 1996. Introductory biology of Fusarium moniliforme p. 153-164. In L. S. Jackson J. W. DeVries and L. B. Bullerman (ed.) Fumonisins in food. Plenum Press New York N.Y.
Lisker N. and E. B. Lillehoj. 1991. Prevention of mycotoxin contamiantion (principally aflatoxins and Fusarium toxins) at the preharvest stage p. 689-719. In J. E. Smith and R. S. Henderson (ed.) Mycotoxins and animals foods. CRC Press Boca Raton Fla.
Mannon, J., and E. Johnson. 1985. Fungi down on the farm. New Sci.105:12-16.
Marasas W. F. O. 1996. Fumonsins: history world-wide occurrence and impact p. 1-17. In L. S. Jackson J. W. DeVries and L. B. Bullerman (ed.) Fumonosins in food. Plenum Press New York N.Y.
Marasas W. F. O. and P. E. Nelson. 1987. Mycotoxicology. The Pennsylvania State University Press University Park Pa.
Marasas, W. F. O., T. S. Kellerman, W. C. A. Gelderblom, J. A. W. Coetzer, P. G. Thiel, and J. J. Van Der Lugt. 1988. Leukoencephalomalacia in horse induced by fumonisin B1 isolated from Fusarium moniliforme.Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res.55:197-203.
Marasas W. F. O. J. D. Miller R. T. Riley and A. Visconti. 2001. Fumonisins—occurrence toxicology metabolism and risk assessment p 332-359. In B. A. Summerell J. F. Leslie D. Backhouse W. L. Bryden and L. W. Burgess (ed.) Fusarium . Paul E. Nelson Memorial Symposium. APS Press St. Paul Minn.
Marasas W. F. O. P. E. Nelson and T. A. Toussoun. 1984. Toxigenic Fusarium species: identity and mycotoxicology. The Pennsylvania State University Press University Park Pa.
Matossian, M. K. 1982. Ergot and the Salem witchcraft affair. Am. Sci.70:355-357.
Matossian M. K. 1989. Poisons of the past: molds epidemics and history. Yale University Press New Haven Conn.
McLaughlin C. S. M. H. Vaughan I. M. Campbell C. M. Wei M. E. Stafford and B. S. Hansen. 1977. Inhibition of protein synthesis by trichothecenes p. 261-284. In J. V. Rodricks C. W. Hesseltine and M. A. Mehlman (ed.) Mycotoxins in human and animal health. Pathotox Publications Park Forest South Ill.
Merrill, A. H. Jr, M. C. Sullards, E. Wang, K. A. Voss, and R. T. Riley. 2001. Sphingolipid metabolism: roles in signal transduction and disruption by fumonisins. Environ. Health Perspect.109(Suppl. 2):283-289.
Miller J. D. and H. L. Trenholm (ed.). 1994. Mycotoxins in grain. Compounds other than aflatoxin. Eagan Press St. Paul Minn.
Miller J. D. J. W. ApSimon B. A. Blackwell R. Greenhalgh and A. Taylor. 2001. Deoxynivalenol: a 25 year perspective on a trichothecene of agricultural importance p. 310-319. In B. A. Summerell J. F. Leslie D. Backhouse W. L. Bryden and L. W. Burgess (ed.) Fusarium Paul E. Nelson Memorial Symposium. APS Press St. Paul Minn.
Mirocha C. J. and C. M. Christensen. 1974. Oestrogenic mycotoxins synthesized by Fusarium p. 129-148. In I. F. H. Purchase (ed.) Mycotoxins. Elsevier Amsterdam The Netherlands.
Missmer, S., K. A. Hendricks, L. Suarez, R. D. Larsen, and I. J. Rothman. 2000. Fumonisins and neural tube defects. Epidemiology11:183-184.
Money N. 2002. Mr. Bloomfield's orchard. The mysterious world of mushrooms molds and mycologists. Oxford University Press New York N.Y.
Montana, E., A. Etzel, T. Allen, T. E. Horgan, and D. G. Dearborn. 1997. Environmental risk factors associated with pediatric idiopathic pulmonary hemorrhage/hemosiderosis in a Cleveland community. Pediatrics99:117-124.
Newberne, P. M., and W. H. Butler. 1969. Acute and chronic effect of aflatoxin B1 on the liver of domestic and laboratory animals: a review. Cancer Res.29:236-250.
Nowicke, J. W., and M. Meselson. 2000. Yellow rain—a palynological analysis. Nature309:205-206.
O'Reilly J. T. P. Hagan R. Gots and A. Hedge. 1998. Keeping buildings healthy. How to monitor and prevent indoor environmental problems. John Wiley & Sons Inc. New York N.Y.
Payne, G., and M. P. Brown. 1998. Genetics and physiology of aflatoxin biosynthesis. Annu. Rev. Plant Pathol.36:329-362.
Peraica, M., B. Radic, A. Lucic, and M. Pavlovic. 1999. Toxic effects of mycotoxins in humans. Bull. W.H.O.77:754-766.
Pestka J. J. and G. S. Bondy. 1994. Immunotoxic effects of mycotoxins p. 339-358. In J. D. Miller and H. Trenhold (ed.) Mycotoxins in grain. Compounds other than aflatoxins. Eagan St. Paul Minn.
Pier, A. C., J. L. Richard, and S. J. Cysewski. 1980. Implications of mycotoxins in animal disease. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc.176:719-724.
Pozzi, C. R., B. Correa, J. G. Xavier, G. M. Direito, R. B. Orsi, and S. V. Matarazzo. 2000. Effects of prolonged oral administration of fumonisin B1 and aflatoxin B1 in rats. Mycopathologia151:21-27.
Pringle, P. 1985. Political science. Atlantic Monthly, Oct. 1985, p.67-81.
Proctor R. H. 2000. Fusarium toxins: trichothecenes and fumonisins p. 363-381. In J. W. Cary J. E. Linz and D. Bhatnagar (ed.) Microbial food-borne diseases: mechanisms of pathogenesis and toxin synthesis. Technomic Publications Lancaster Pa.
Rheeder, J. P., W. F. Marasas, and H. F. Vismer. 2002. Production of fumonisin analogs by Fusarium species. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.68:2102-2105.
Richard J. L and J. R. Thurston. 1986. Diagnosis of mycotoxicoses. Martinus Nijhoff Publications Dordrecht The Netherlands.
Riddle J. M. 1997. Eve's herbs. A history of contraception and abortion in the west. Harvard University Press Cambridge Mass.
Riley R. T. and D E. Goeger. 1992. Cyclopiazonic acid: speculations on its function in fungi p. 385-402. In D. Bhatnagar E. B. Lillehoj and D. K. Arora (ed.) Handbook of applied mycology vol. 5. Mycotoxins in ecological systems. Marcel Dekker Inc. New York N.Y.
Rodricks J. V. C. W. Hesseltine and M. A. Mehlman (ed.). 1977. Mycotoxins in human and animal health. Pathotox Publishers Inc. Park Forest South Ill.
Ross, R. K., J. M. Yuan, M. C. Yu, G. N. Wogan, G. S. Qian, J. T. Tu, J. Groopman, Y. T. Gao, and B. E. Henderson. 1992. Urinary aflatoxin biomarkers and risk of hepatocellular carcinoma. Lancet339:1413-1414.
Rylander, R. 1998. Microbial cell wall constituents in indoor air and their relation to disease. Indoor Air4(Suppl.):59-65.
Sabbioni G. and O. Sepai. 1994. Determination of human exposure to aflatoxins p. 183-226. In K. K. Sinha and K. Bhatnagar (ed.) Mycotoxins in agriculture and food safety. Marcel Dekker Inc. New York N.Y.
Saito M. M. Enomoto and T. Tatsuno. 1971. Yellowed rice toxins: luteroskyrin and related compounds chlorine-containing compounds and citrinin p. 299-380. In A. Ciegler S. Kadis and S. J. Ajl (ed.) Microbial toxins vol. VI: fungal toxins. Academic Press New York N.Y.
Schoental, R. 1983. Precocious sexual development in Puerto Rico and oestrogenic mycotoxins (zearalenone). Lanceti:537.
Scott P. M. 1989. The natural occurrence of trichothecenes p. 1-26. In V. H. Beasley (ed.) Trichothecene mycotoxicosis: pathophysiologic effects vol. I. CRC Press Boca Raton Fla.
Seagrave S. 1981. Yellow rain: a journey through the terror of chemical warfare. M. Evans and Co. Inc. New York N.Y.
Shier, W. T. 1998. Estrogenic mycotoxins. Rev. Med. Vet.149:599-604.
Sinha K. K. and D. Bhatnagar (ed.). 1998. Mycotoxins in agriculture and food safety. Marcel Dekker Inc. New York N.Y.
Skaug, M. A., E. Eduard, and F. C. Stormer. 2000. Ochratoxin A in airborne dust and fungal conidia. Mycopathologia151:93-98.
Smith J. E. and R. A. Anderson (ed.). 1991. Mycotoxins and animal foods. CRC Press Boca Raton Fla.
Smith J. E. and M. O. Moss. 1985. Mycotoxins. Formation analyses and significance. John Wiley and Sons Chichester United Kingdom.
Steyn P. S. (ed.). 1980. The biosynthesis of mycotoxins: a study in secondary metabolism. Academic Press New York N.Y.
Steyn P. S. and R. Vleggaar. 1985. Tremorgenic mycotoxins p. 1-80. In W. Herz H. Griseback G. W. Kirby and Ch. Tamm (ed.) Progress in the chemistry of organic natural products vol. 48. Springer-Verlag Vienna Austria.
Sweeney, M. J., S. White, and A. D. W. Dobson. 2000. Mycotoxins in agriculture and food safety. Irish J. Agric. Food. Res.39:235-244.
Townsend, C. A. 1997. Progress towards a biosynthetic rationale of the aflatoxin pathway. Pure Appl. Chem.58:227-238.
Trenholm H. L. D. Friend R. M. G. Hamilton D. B. Prelusky and B. C. Foster. 1989. Lethal toxicity and nonspecific effects p. 107-142. In V. L. Beasley (ed.) Trichothecene mycotoxicosis: pathophysiologic effects vol. I. CRC Press Boca Raton Fla.
Trucksess M. W. and Y. Tang. 2001. Solid phase extraction method for patulin in apple juice and unfiltered apple juice p. 205-213. In M. W. Trucksess and A. F. Pohland (ed.) Mycotoxin protocols. Humana Press Totowa N.J.
Ueno Y. (ed.). 1983. Trichothecenes: chemical biological and toxicological aspects. Elsevier Amsterdam The Netherlands.
Urry, W. H., H. L. Wehrmeister, E. B. Hodge, and P. H. Hidy. 1966. The structure of zearalenone. Tetrahedron Lett.27:3109-3114.
Van Egmond H. P. 1989. Aflatoxin M 1 : occurrence toxicity regulation p. 11-55. In H. P. Van Egmond (ed.) Mycotoxins in dairy products. Elsevier Applied Science London.
Van Egmond H. P. 1991. Worldwide regulations for ochratoxin A p. 331-336. In M. Castegnaro R. Plestina G. Dirheimer I. N. Chernozemsky and H. Bartsch (ed.) Mycotoxins endemic nephropathy and urinary tract tumors. Publication no. 115. International Agency for Research on Cancer. Lyon France.
Van Egmond, H. P., and G. J. A. Speijers. 1994. Survey of data on the incidence and levels of ochratoxin A in food and animal feed worldwide. Nat. Toxins3:125-144.
Whiteside T. 1991. Annals of the Cold War: the yellow rain complex. New Yorker 11 Feb. 1991 p. 38-67; 18 Feb. 1991 p. 44-66.
Willis, R. M., J. J. Mulvihill, and J. H. Hoofnagle. 1980. Attempted suicide with purified aflatoxin. Lancet,i:1198-1199.
Wilson D. M. and G. A. Payne. 1994. Factors affecting Aspergillus flavus group infection and aflatoxin contamination of crops p. 309-325. In D. L Eaton and J. D. Groopman (ed.) The toxicology of aflatoxins. Human health veterinary and agricultural significance. Academic Press San Diego Calif.
Wilson D. M. W. Mubatanhema and Z. Jurjevic. 2002. Biology and ecology of mycotoxigenic Aspergillus species as related to economic and health concerns p. 3-17. In J. W. deVries M. W. Trucksess and L. S. Jackson (ed.) Mycotoxins and food safety. Kluwer Academic Plenum Publications Dordrecht The Netherlands.
Wilson D. M. E. W. Sydenham G. A. Lombaert M. W. Trucksess D. Abramson and G. A. Bennett. 1998. Mycotoxin analytical techniques p. 135-182. In K. S. Sinha and D. Bhatnagar (ed.) Mycotoxins in agriculture and food safety. Marcel Dekker Inc. New York N.Y.
Wogan G. N. (ed.). 1965. Mycotoxins in foodstuffs. M.I.T. Press Cambridge Mass.
Woolf, L. I. 1986. The heterozygote advantage in phenylketonuria. Am. J. Hum. Genet.38:773-775.
Wyllie T. D. and L. G. Morehouse (ed.). 1977. Mycotoxic fungi mycotoxins mycotoxicoses: an encyclopedic handbook vol. 1. Marcel Dekker Inc. New York N.Y.
Wyllie T. D. and L. G. Morehouse (ed.). 1978. Mycotoxic fungi mycotoxins mycotoxicoses: an encyclopedic handbook vol. 2. Marcel Dekker Inc. New York N.Y.
Zilinskas, R. A. 1997. Iraq's biological weapons. The past as future? J. Am. Med. Assoc.276:418-424.