Myasthenia gravis: A comprehensive review of immune dysregulation and etiological mechanisms

Journal of Autoimmunity - Tập 52 - Trang 90-100 - 2014
Sonia Berrih‐Aknin1, Rozen Le Panse1
1INSERM U974, Paris, France

Tóm tắt

Từ khóa


Tài liệu tham khảo

Carr, 2010, A systematic review of population based epidemiological studies in myasthenia gravis, BMC Neurol, 10, 46, 10.1186/1471-2377-10-46

Somnier, 1991, Epidemiology of myasthenia gravis in Denmark. A longitudinal and comprehensive population survey, Arch Neurol, 48, 733, 10.1001/archneur.1991.00530190081019

Pestronk, 1985, Measurement of junctional acetylcholine receptors in myasthenia gravis: clinical correlates, Muscle Nerve, 8, 245, 10.1002/mus.880080311

Limburg, 1983, Anti-acetylcholine receptor antibodies in myasthenia gravis. Part 1. Relation to clinical parameters in 250 patients, J Neurol Sci, 58, 357, 10.1016/0022-510X(83)90095-3

Nakano, 1993, Myasthenia gravis: quantitative immunocytochemical analysis of inflammatory cells and detection of complement membrane attack complex at the end-plate in 30 patients, Neurology, 43, 1167, 10.1212/WNL.43.6.1167

Le Panse, 2013, Autoimmune myasthenia gravis: autoantibody mechanisms and new developments on immune regulation, Curr Opin Neurol, 26, 569, 10.1097/WCO.0b013e328364d6cd

Tuzun, 2013, Complement associated pathogenic mechanisms in myasthenia gravis, Autoimmun Rev, 12, 904, 10.1016/j.autrev.2013.03.003

Verschuuren, 2013, Pathophysiology of myasthenia gravis with antibodies to the acetylcholine receptor, muscle-specific kinase and low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 4, Autoimmun Rev, 12, 918, 10.1016/j.autrev.2013.03.001

Eymard, 1991, Anti-acetylcholine receptor antibodies in neonatal myasthenia gravis: heterogeneity and pathogenic significance, J Autoimmun, 4, 185, 10.1016/0896-8411(91)90017-7

Guyon, 1994, Regulation of acetylcholine receptor alpha subunit variants in human myasthenia gravis. Quantification of steady-state levels of messenger RNA in muscle biopsy using the polymerase chain reaction, J Clin Invest, 94, 16, 10.1172/JCI117302

Guyon, 1998, Regulation of acetylcholine receptor gene expression in human myasthenia gravis muscles. Evidences for a compensatory mechanism triggered by receptor loss, J Clin Invest, 102, 249, 10.1172/JCI1248

Kida, 1987, Heterogeneity in myasthenia gravis: HLA phenotypes and autoantibody responses in ocular and generalized types, Ann Neurol, 21, 274, 10.1002/ana.410210309

Leite, 2008, IgG1 antibodies to acetylcholine receptors in 'seronegative' myasthenia gravis, Brain, 131, 1940, 10.1093/brain/awn092

Berrih-Aknin, 2009, CCL21 overexpressed on lymphatic vessels drives thymic hyperplasia in myasthenia, Ann Neurol, 66, 521, 10.1002/ana.21628

Eymard, 1995, Role of the thymus in the physiopathology of myasthenia, Rev Neurol (Paris), 151, 6

Thorlacius, 1989, Associated disorders in myasthenia gravis: autoimmune diseases and their relation to thymectomy, Acta Neurol Scand, 80, 290, 10.1111/j.1600-0404.1989.tb03881.x

Romi, 2000, Muscle autoantibodies in subgroups of myasthenia gravis patients, J Neurol, 247, 369

Romi, 2007, Myasthenia gravis patients with ryanodine receptor antibodies have distinctive clinical features, Eur J Neurol, 14, 617, 10.1111/j.1468-1331.2007.01785.x

Aragones, 2003, Myasthenia gravis: a higher than expected incidence in the elderly, Neurology, 60, 1024, 10.1212/01.WNL.0000050461.05432.C5

Casetta, 2010, Myasthenia gravis: a changing pattern of incidence, J Neurol, 257, 2015

DeChiara, 1996, The receptor tyrosine kinase MuSK is required for neuromuscular junction formation in vivo, Cell, 85, 501, 10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81251-9

Lin, 2001, Distinct roles of nerve and muscle in postsynaptic differentiation of the neuromuscular synapse, Nature, 410, 1057, 10.1038/35074025

Lavrnic, 2005, The features of myasthenia gravis with autoantibodies to MuSK, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatr, 76, 1099, 10.1136/jnnp.2004.052415

Evoli, 2003, Clinical correlates with anti-MuSK antibodies in generalized seronegative myasthenia gravis, Brain, 126, 2304, 10.1093/brain/awg223

Leite, 2005, Fewer thymic changes in MuSK antibody-positive than in MuSK antibody-negative MG, Ann Neurol, 57, 444, 10.1002/ana.20386

Klooster, 2012, Muscle-specific kinase myasthenia gravis IgG4 autoantibodies cause severe neuromuscular junction dysfunction in mice, Brain, 135, 1081, 10.1093/brain/aws025

Punga, 2011, Muscle-selective synaptic disassembly and reorganization in MuSK antibody positive MG mice, Exp Neurol, 230, 207, 10.1016/j.expneurol.2011.04.018

Kim, 2008, Lrp4 is a receptor for Agrin and forms a complex with MuSK, Cell, 135, 334, 10.1016/j.cell.2008.10.002

Higuchi, 2011, Autoantibodies to low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 4 in myasthenia gravis, Ann Neurol, 69, 418, 10.1002/ana.22312

Zhang, 2012, Autoantibodies to lipoprotein-related protein 4 in patients with double-seronegative myasthenia gravis, Arch Neurol, 69, 445, 10.1001/archneurol.2011.2393

Zisimopoulou, 2014, A Comprehensive Analysis of the Epidemiology and Clinical Characteristics of Anti-LRP4 in Myasthenia Gravis, J Autoimmun, 52, 139, 10.1016/j.jaut.2013.12.004

Jacob, 2012, Presence and pathogenic relevance of antibodies to clustered acetylcholine receptor in ocular and generalized myasthenia gravis, Arch Neurol, 69, 994, 10.1001/archneurol.2012.437

Cossins, 2012, The search for new antigenic targets in myasthenia gravis, Ann N Y Acad Sci, 1275, 123, 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2012.06833.x

Derbinski, 2001, Promiscuous gene expression in medullary thymic epithelial cells mirrors the peripheral self, Nat Immunol, 2, 1032, 10.1038/ni723

Suniara, 2000, An essential role for thymic mesenchyme in early T cell development, J Exp Med, 191, 1051, 10.1084/jem.191.6.1051

Le Panse, 2005, Thymic myoid cells protect thymocytes from apoptosis and modulate their differentiation: implication of the ERK and Akt signaling pathways, Cell Death Differ, 12, 463, 10.1038/sj.cdd.4401611

Berrih-Aknin, 1987, The role of the thymus in myasthenia gravis: immunohistological and immunological studies in 115 cases, Ann N Y Acad Sci, 505, 50, 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb51282.x

Suster, 2006, Thymoma classification: current status and future trends, Am J Clin Pathol, 125, 542, 10.1309/CAV8-RNU5-TKNA-CKNC

Filosso, 2013, Thymoma and the increased risk of developing extrathymic malignancies: a multicentre study, Eur J Cardiothorac Surg, 44, 219, 10.1093/ejcts/ezs663

Marx, 2013, The different roles of the thymus in the pathogenesis of the various myasthenia gravis subtypes, Autoimmun Rev, 12, 875, 10.1016/j.autrev.2013.03.007

Meager, 2003, Anti-cytokine autoantibodies in autoimmunity: preponderance of neutralizing autoantibodies against interferon-alpha, interferon-omega and interleukin-12 in patients with thymoma and/or myasthenia gravis, Clin Exp Immunol, 132, 128, 10.1046/j.1365-2249.2003.02113.x

Cufi, 2014, Thymoma-associated myasthenia gravis: on the search for a pathogen signature, J Autoimmun, 52, 29, 10.1016/j.jaut.2013.12.018

Lauriola, 2005, Thymus changes in anti-MuSK-positive and -negative myasthenia gravis, Neurology, 64, 536, 10.1212/01.WNL.0000150587.71497.B6

Berrih, 1984, Anti-AChR antibodies, thymic histology, and T cell subsets in myasthenia gravis, Neurology, 34, 66, 10.1212/WNL.34.1.66

Leprince, 1990, Thymic B cells from myasthenia gravis patients are activated B cells. Phenotypic and functional analysis, J Immunol, 145, 2115, 10.4049/jimmunol.145.7.2115

Lisak, 1986, Antibodies to acetylcholine receptor and tetanus toxoid: in vitro synthesis by thymic lymphocytes, J Immunol, 137, 1221, 10.4049/jimmunol.137.4.1221

Safar, 1987, In vitro anti-acetylcholine receptor antibody synthesis by myasthenia gravis patient lymphocytes: correlations with thymic histology and thymic epithelial-cell interactions, J Clin Immunol, 7, 225, 10.1007/BF00915728

Fujii, 1986, Specific activation of lymphocytes against acetylcholine receptor in the thymus in myasthenia gravis, J Immunol, 136, 887, 10.4049/jimmunol.136.3.887

Yoshikawa, 2001, Analysis of immunoglobulin secretion by lymph organs with myasthenia gravis, Acta Neurol Scand, 103, 53, 10.1034/j.1600-0404.2001.00209.x

Schonbeck, 1992, Transplantation of thymic autoimmune microenvironment to severe combined immunodeficiency mice. A new model of myasthenia gravis, J Clin Invest, 90, 245, 10.1172/JCI115843

Aissaoui, 1999, Prevention of autoimmune attack by targeting specific T-cell receptors in a severe combined immunodeficiency mouse model of myasthenia gravis, Ann Neurol, 46, 559, 10.1002/1531-8249(199910)46:4<559::AID-ANA3>3.0.CO;2-S

Meraouna, 2006, The chemokine CXCL13 is a key molecule in autoimmune myasthenia gravis, Blood, 108, 432, 10.1182/blood-2005-06-2383

Weiss, 2013, SDF-1/CXCL12 recruits B cells and antigen-presenting cells to the thymus of autoimmune myasthenia gravis patients, Immunobiology, 218, 373, 10.1016/j.imbio.2012.05.006

Le Panse, 2010, Thymic remodeling associated with hyperplasia in myasthenia gravis, Autoimmunity, 43, 401, 10.3109/08916930903563491

Weiss, 2013, The thymus in autoimmune Myasthenia gravis: paradigm for a tertiary lymphoid organ, Rev Neurol (Paris), 169, 640, 10.1016/j.neurol.2013.02.005

Luther, 2000, BLC expression in pancreatic islets causes B cell recruitment and lymphotoxin-dependent lymphoid neogenesis, Immunity, 12, 471, 10.1016/S1074-7613(00)80199-5

Drayton, 2003, Ectopic LT alpha beta directs lymphoid organ neogenesis with concomitant expression of peripheral node addressin and a HEV-restricted sulfotransferase, J Exp Med, 197, 1153, 10.1084/jem.20021761

Le Panse, 2006, Microarrays reveal distinct gene signatures in the thymus of seropositive and seronegative myasthenia gravis patients and the role of CC chemokine ligand 21 in thymic hyperplasia, J Immunol, 177, 7868, 10.4049/jimmunol.177.11.7868

Legler, 1998, B cell-attracting chemokine 1, a human CXC chemokine expressed in lymphoid tissues, selectively attracts B lymphocytes via BLR1/CXCR5, J Exp Med, 187, 655, 10.1084/jem.187.4.655

Saito, 2005, Altered expression of chemokine receptor CXCR5 on T cells of myasthenia gravis patients, J Neuroimmunol, 170, 172, 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2005.09.001

Luo, 2013, Expansion of circulating counterparts of follicular helper T cells in patients with myasthenia gravis, J Neuroimmunol, 256, 55, 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2012.12.001

Cordiglieri, 2014, Innate immunity in myasthenia gravis thymus: pathogenic effects of Toll-like receptor 4 signaling on autoimmunity, J Autoimmun, 52, 74, 10.1016/j.jaut.2013.12.013

Poea-Guyon, 2005, Effects of cytokines on acetylcholine receptor expression: implications for myasthenia gravis, J Immunol, 174, 5941, 10.4049/jimmunol.174.10.5941

Tzartos, 1980, Monoclonal antibodies used to probe acetylcholine receptor structure: localization of the main immunogenic region and detection of similarities between subunits, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 77, 755, 10.1073/pnas.77.2.755

Moulian, 1998, Two signaling pathways can increase fas expression in human thymocytes, Blood, 92, 1297, 10.1182/blood.V92.4.1297

Moulian, 1997, Thymocyte Fas expression is dysregulated in myasthenia gravis patients with anti-acetylcholine receptor antibody, Blood, 89, 3287, 10.1182/blood.V89.9.3287

Cohen-Kaminsky, 1989, High recombinant interleukin-2 sensitivity of peripheral blood lymphocytes from patients with myasthenia gravis: correlations with clinical parameters, J Autoimmun, 2, 241, 10.1016/0896-8411(89)90267-9

Link, 1994, Augmented interferon-gamma, interleukin-4 and transforming growth factor-beta mRNA expression in blood mononuclear cells in myasthenia gravis, J Neuroimmunol, 51, 185, 10.1016/0165-5728(94)90080-9

Feferman, 2005, Overexpression of IFN-induced protein 10 and its receptor CXCR3 in myasthenia gravis, J Immunol, 174, 5324, 10.4049/jimmunol.174.9.5324

Gradolatto, 2014, Both Treg cells and Tconv cells are defective in the myasthenia gravis thymus: roles of IL-17 and TNF-α, J Autoimmun, 52, 53, 10.1016/j.jaut.2013.12.015

Hori, 2003, Control of autoimmunity by naturally arising regulatory CD4+ T cells, Adv Immunol, 81, 331, 10.1016/S0065-2776(03)81008-8

Buckner, 2010, Mechanisms of impaired regulation by CD4(+)CD25(+)FOXP3(+) regulatory T cells in human autoimmune diseases, Nat Rev Immunol, 10, 849, 10.1038/nri2889

Balandina, 2005, Functional defect of regulatory CD4(+)CD25+ T cells in the thymus of patients with autoimmune myasthenia gravis, Blood, 105, 735, 10.1182/blood-2003-11-3900

Matsui, 2010, Undiminished regulatory T cells in the thymus of patients with myasthenia gravis, Neurology, 74, 816, 10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181d31e47

Battaglia, 2005, Circulating CD4+CD25+ T regulatory and natural killer T cells in patients with myasthenia gravis: a flow cytometry study, J Biol Regul Homeost Agents, 19, 54

Thiruppathi, 2012, Functional defect in regulatory T cells in myasthenia gravis, Ann N Y Acad Sci, 1274, 68, 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2012.06840.x

Zhang, 2009, The role of FoxP3+CD4+CD25hi Tregs in the pathogenesis of myasthenia gravis, Immunol Lett, 122, 52, 10.1016/j.imlet.2008.11.015

Luther, 2009, Prednisolone treatment induces tolerogenic dendritic cells and a regulatory milieu in myasthenia gravis patients, J Immunol, 183, 841, 10.4049/jimmunol.0802046

Gradolatto, 2012, Defects of immunoregulatory mechanisms in myasthenia gravis: role of IL-17, Ann N Y Acad Sci, 1274, 40, 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2012.06791.x

Roche, 2011, Increased serum interleukin-17 levels in patients with myasthenia gravis, Muscle Nerve, 44, 278, 10.1002/mus.22070

Masuda, 2010, Clinical implication of peripheral CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells and Th17 cells in myasthenia gravis patients, J Neuroimmunol, 225, 123, 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2010.03.016

Wang, 2012, T helper type 17 cells expand in patients with myasthenia-associated thymoma, Scand J Immunol, 76, 54, 10.1111/j.1365-3083.2012.02703.x

Aime, 1991, In vitro interleukin-1 (IL-1) production in thymic hyperplasia and thymoma from patients with myasthenia gravis, J Clin Immunol, 11, 268, 10.1007/BF00918185

Cohen-Kaminsky, 1993, Interleukin-6 overproduction by cultured thymic epithelial cells from patients with myasthenia gravis is potentially involved in thymic hyperplasia, Eur Cytokine Netw, 4, 121

Spillane, 2013, Thymectomy: role in the treatment of myasthenia gravis, J Neurol, 260, 1798

Budde, 2001, Predictors of outcome in thymectomy for myasthenia gravis, Ann Thorac Surg, 72, 197, 10.1016/S0003-4975(01)02678-9

Nieto, 1999, Prognostic factors for myasthenia gravis treated by thymectomy: review of 61 cases, Ann Thorac Surg, 67, 1568, 10.1016/S0003-4975(99)00310-0

Okumura, 2003, The immunologic role of thymectomy in the treatment of myasthenia gravis: implication of thymus-associated B-lymphocyte subset in reduction of the anti-acetylcholine receptor antibody titer, J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg, 126, 1922, 10.1016/S0022-5223(03)00938-3

Newsom-Davis, 2008, Status of the thymectomy trial for nonthymomatous myasthenia gravis patients receiving prednisone, Ann N Y Acad Sci, 1132, 344, 10.1196/annals.1405.014

Ramanujam, 2011, Utilizing twins concordance rates to infer the predisposition to myasthenia gravis, Twin Res Hum Genet, 14, 129, 10.1375/twin.14.2.129

Vandiedonck, 2005, Genetics of autoimmune myasthenia gravis: the multifaceted contribution of the HLA complex, J Autoimmun, 25, 6, 10.1016/j.jaut.2005.09.010

Giraud, 2008, Genetic factors in autoimmune myasthenia gravis, Ann N Y Acad Sci, 1132, 180, 10.1196/annals.1405.027

Meriggioli, 2009, Autoimmune myasthenia gravis: emerging clinical and biological heterogeneity, Lancet Neurol, 8, 475, 10.1016/S1474-4422(09)70063-8

Avidan, 2014, Genetic basis of autoimmune myasthenia gravis - A comprehensive review, J Autoimmun, 52, 146, 10.1016/j.jaut.2013.12.001

Huang, 1999, Tumour necrosis factor-alpha polymorphism and secretion in myasthenia gravis, J Neuroimmunol, 94, 165, 10.1016/S0165-5728(98)00253-7

Cavalcante, 2013, Etiology of myasthenia gravis: Innate immunity signature in pathological thymus, Autoimmun Rev, 12, 863, 10.1016/j.autrev.2013.03.010

Landoure, 2012, A candidate gene for autoimmune myasthenia gravis, Neurology, 79, 342, 10.1212/WNL.0b013e318260cbd0

Gregersen, 2012, Risk for myasthenia gravis maps to a (151) Pro-->Ala change in TNIP1 and to human leukocyte antigen-B*08, Ann Neurol, 72, 927, 10.1002/ana.23691

Hystad, 2007, Characterization of early stages of human B cell development by gene expression profiling, J Immunol, 179, 3662, 10.4049/jimmunol.179.6.3662

Bowes, 2011, Confirmation of TNIP1 and IL23A as susceptibility loci for psoriatic arthritis, Ann Rheum Dis, 70, 1641, 10.1136/ard.2011.150102

Zhang, 2012, Identification of TNIP1 polymorphisms by high resolution melting analysis with unlabelled probe: association with systemic lupus erythematosus, Autoimmune Dis, 2012

Boone, 2004, The ubiquitin-modifying enzyme A20 is required for termination of toll-like receptor responses, Nat Immunol, 5, 1052, 10.1038/ni1110

Nanda, 2011, Polyubiquitin binding to ABIN1 is required to prevent autoimmunity, J Exp Med, 208, 1215, 10.1084/jem.20102177

Filipowicz, 2008, Mechanisms of post-transcriptional regulation by microRNAs: are the answers in sight?, Nat Rev Genet, 9, 102, 10.1038/nrg2290

Tang, 2009, MicroRNA-146A contributes to abnormal activation of the type I interferon pathway in human lupus by targeting the key signaling proteins, Arthritis Rheum, 60, 1065, 10.1002/art.24436

Alsaleh, 2009, Bruton's tyrosine kinase is involved in miR-346-related regulation of IL-18 release by lipopolysaccharide-activated rheumatoid fibroblast-like synoviocytes, J Immunol, 182, 5088, 10.4049/jimmunol.0801613

Lu, 2009, MicroRNA-21 is up-regulated in allergic airway inflammation and regulates IL-12p35 expression, J Immunol, 182, 4994, 10.4049/jimmunol.0803560

Baltimore, 2008, MicroRNAs: new regulators of immune cell development and function, Nat Immunol, 9, 839, 10.1038/ni.f.209

Cheng, 2013, MiR-320a is downregulated in patients with myasthenia gravis and modulates inflammatory cytokines production by targeting mitogen-activated protein kinase 1, J Clin Immunol, 33, 567, 10.1007/s10875-012-9834-5

Sun, 2012, Specific immunotherapy of experimental myasthenia gravis in vitro and in vivo: the guided missile strategy, J Neuroimmunol, 251, 25, 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2012.06.007

Goren, 2012, Serum levels of microRNAs in patients with heart failure, Eur J Heart Fail, 14, 147, 10.1093/eurjhf/hfr155

Jiang, 2012, Altered let-7 expression in Myasthenia gravis and let-7c mediated regulation of IL-10 by directly targeting IL-10 in Jurkat cells, Int Immunopharmacol, 14, 217, 10.1016/j.intimp.2012.07.003

Gandhi, 2013, Circulating MicroRNAs as biomarkers for disease staging in multiple sclerosis, Ann Neurol, 73, 729, 10.1002/ana.23880

Wang, 2011, Let-7/miR-98 regulate Fas and Fas-mediated apoptosis, Genes Immun, 12, 149, 10.1038/gene.2010.53

Oertelt-Prigione, 2012, The influence of sex and gender on the immune response, Autoimmun Rev, 11, A479, 10.1016/j.autrev.2011.11.022

Cai, 2012, Estrogen stimulates Th2 cytokine production and regulates the compartmentalisation of eosinophils during allergen challenge in a mouse model of asthma, Int Arch Allergy Immunol, 158, 252, 10.1159/000331437

Straub, 2007, The complex role of estrogens in inflammation, Endocr Rev, 28, 521, 10.1210/er.2007-0001

Shim, 2004, Autoimmune glomerulonephritis with spontaneous formation of splenic germinal centers in mice lacking the estrogen receptor alpha gene, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 101, 1720, 10.1073/pnas.0307915100

Staples, 1999, Estrogen receptor alpha is necessary in thymic development and estradiol-induced thymic alterations, J Immunol, 163, 4168, 10.4049/jimmunol.163.8.4168

Hirahara, 1994, Glucocorticoid independence of acute thymic involution induced by lymphotoxin and estrogen, Cell Immunol, 153, 401, 10.1006/cimm.1994.1038

Tai, 2008, Induction of regulatory T cells by physiological level estrogen, J Cell Physiol, 214, 456, 10.1002/jcp.21221

Vijayan, 1977, Acetylcholinesterase activity and menstrual remissions in myasthenia gravis, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatr, 40, 1060, 10.1136/jnnp.40.11.1060

Ramirez, 2006, Myasthenia gravis and pregnancy: clinical course and management of delivery and the postpartum phase, Rev Neurol (Paris), 162, 330, 10.1016/S0035-3787(06)75019-6

Nancy, 2005, Differential estrogen receptor expression in autoimmune myasthenia gravis, Endocrinology, 146, 2345, 10.1210/en.2004-1003

Leker, 2000, Effects of sex hormones on experimental autoimmune myasthenia gravis, Eur J Neurol, 7, 203, 10.1046/j.1468-1331.2000.00042.x

Delpy, 2005, Estrogen enhances susceptibility to experimental autoimmune myasthenia gravis by promoting type 1-polarized immune responses, J Immunol, 175, 5050, 10.4049/jimmunol.175.8.5050

Savino, 2006, The thymus is a common target organ in infectious diseases, PLoS Pathog, 2, e62, 10.1371/journal.ppat.0020062

Cavalcante, 2010, Detection of poliovirus-infected macrophages in thymus of patients with myasthenia gravis, Neurology, 74, 1118, 10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181d7d884

Leis, 2014, West nile virus infection and myasthenia gravis, Muscle Nerve, 49, 26, 10.1002/mus.23869

Cizeron-Clairac, 2008, Thymus and Myasthenia Gravis: what can we learn from DNA microarrays?, J Neuroimmunol, 201-202, 57, 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2008.06.028

Bernasconi, 2005, Increased toll-like receptor 4 expression in thymus of myasthenic patients with thymitis and thymic involution, Am J Pathol, 167, 129, 10.1016/S0002-9440(10)62960-4

Cufi, 2013, Implication of double-stranded RNA signaling in the etiology of autoimmune myasthenia gravis, Ann Neurol, 73, 281, 10.1002/ana.23791

Cavalcante, 2010, Epstein-Barr virus persistence and reactivation in myasthenia gravis thymus, Ann Neurol, 67, 726, 10.1002/ana.21902

Iwakiri, 2009, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-encoded small RNA is released from EBV-infected cells and activates signaling from Toll-like receptor 3, J Exp Med, 206, 2091, 10.1084/jem.20081761

Csuka, 2012, High anti-EBNA-1 IgG levels are associated with early-onset myasthenia gravis, Eur J Neurol, 19, 842, 10.1111/j.1468-1331.2011.03636.x

Wang, 2013, Possible involvement of toll-like receptors in the pathogenesis of myasthenia gravis, Inflammation, 36, 121, 10.1007/s10753-012-9526-6

Piccolo, 1996, Myasthenia gravis in a patient with chronic active hepatitis C during interferon-alpha treatment, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatr, 60, 348, 10.1136/jnnp.60.3.348

Mase, 1996, Development of myasthenia gravis during interferon-alpha treatment for anti-HCV positive chronic hepatitis, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatr, 60, 348, 10.1136/jnnp.60.3.348-a

Dionisiotis, 2004, Development of myasthenia gravis in two patients with multiple sclerosis following interferon beta treatment, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatr, 75, 1079, 10.1136/jnnp.2003.028233

Batocchi, 1995, Myasthenia gravis during interferon alfa therapy, Neurology, 45, 382, 10.1212/WNL.45.2.382

Meloni, 2008, Autoantibodies against type I interferons as an additional diagnostic criterion for autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type I, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 93, 4389, 10.1210/jc.2008-0935

Cufi, 2014, Central role of interferon-beta in thymic events leading to myasthenia gravis, J Autoimmun, 52, 44, 10.1016/j.jaut.2013.12.016