Methodological issues and inconsistencies in the field of omega-3 fatty acids research

Burr, 1929, A new deficiency disease produced by the rigid exclusion of fat from the diet, J. Biol. Chem., 82, 345, 10.1016/S0021-9258(20)78281-5 Burr, 1930, On the nature and role of the essential fatty acids in nutrition, J. Biol. Chem., 86, 587, 10.1016/S0021-9258(20)78929-5 Mata Lopez, 2003, Omega-3 fatty acids in the prevention and control of cardiovascular disease, Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 57, S22, 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601805 Dyall, 2010, Amyloid-beta, oxidative stress and inflammation: neuroprotective effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, Int. J. Alzheimer's Dis., 10.4061/2010/274128 Dyall, 2008, Neurological Benefits of omega-3 fatty acids, Neuromolecular Med., 4, 219, 10.1007/s12017-008-8036-z Fritsche, 1988, Rapid autoxidation of fish oil in diets without added antioxidants, J. Nutr., 118, 425, 10.1093/jn/118.4.425 Farmer, 1943, The course of autoxidation reactions in polyisoprene and allied compounds. Part VII: rearrangement of double bonds during autoxidation, J. Chem. Soc., 541, 10.1039/jr9430000541 Gardner, 1989, Oxygen radical chemistry of polyunsaturated fatty acids, Free Radic. Biol. Med., 7, 65, 10.1016/0891-5849(89)90102-0 Cosgrove, 1987, The kinetics of the autoxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids, Lipids, 22, 299, 10.1007/BF02533996 Chee, 1990, Fatty acid content of marine oil capsules, Lipids, 25, 523, 10.1007/BF02537158 Luley, 1988, Fatty acid composition and degree of peroxidation in fish oil and cod liver oil preparations, Arzneimittelforschung, 38, 1783 Shukla, 1991, The presence of oxidative polymeric materials in encapsulated fish oils, Lipids, 26, 23, 10.1007/BF02544019 Kanner, 2007, Dietary advanced lipid oxidation endproducts are risk factors to human health, Mol. Nutr. Food Res., 51, 1094, 10.1002/mnfr.200600303 Tsai, 1989, Stability of fish oil in purified diet with added antioxidants: effects of temperature and light, Nutr. Res., 9, 673, 10.1016/S0271-5317(89)80134-4 Ke, 1977, Mackerel skin lipids as an unsaturated fat model for the determination of antioxidative potency of TBHQ and other antioxidant compounds, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 54, 417, 10.1007/BF02671023 van Aardt, 2004, Effect of antioxidants on oxidative stability of edible fats and oils: thermogravimetric analysis, J. Agric. Food Chem., 52, 587, 10.1021/jf030304f Gharavi, 2007, Chemoprotective and carcinogenic effects of tert-butylhydroquinone and its metabolites, Curr. Drug Metab., 8, 1, 10.2174/138920007779315035 Esterbauer, 1991, Chemistry and biochemistry of 4-hydroxynonenal, malondialdehyde and related aldehydes, Free Radic. Biol. Med., 11, 128, 10.1016/0891-5849(91)90192-6 Van Kuijk, 1990, 4-Hydroxyhexenal: a lipid peroxidation product derived from oxidised docosahexaenoic acid, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1043, 116, 10.1016/0005-2760(90)90118-H Esterbauer, 1986, Studies on the mechanism of formation of 4-hydroxynonenal during microsomal lipid peroxidation, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 876, 154, 10.1016/0005-2760(86)90329-2 Simopoulos, 1986, Summary of the conference on the health effects of polyunsaturated fatty acids in seafoods, J. Nutr., 116, 2350, 10.1093/jn/116.12.2350 Gonzalez, 1992, Lipid peroxidation products are elevated in fish oil diets even in the presence of added antioxidants, J. Nutr., 122, 2190, 10.1093/jn/122.11.2190 Piche, 1988, Malondialdehyde excretion by subjects consuming cod liver oil vs. a concentrate of n-3 fatty acids, Lipids, 23, 370, 10.1007/BF02537352 Baynes, 2007, Dietary ALEs are a risk to human health—NOT!, Mol. Nutr. Food Res., 51, 1102, 10.1002/mnfr.200600287 Kulas, 2001, Different tocopherols and the relationship between two methods for determination of primary oxidation products in fish oil, J. Agric. Food Chem., 49, 1724, 10.1021/jf0011541 Dyall, 2010, Omega-3 fatty acids reverse age-related decreases in nuclear receptors and increase neurogenesis in old rats, J. Neurosci. Res., 88, 2091, 10.1002/jnr.22390 Dyall, 2007, Dietary enrichment with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids reverses age-related decreases in the GluR2 and NR2B glutamate receptor subunits in rat forebrain, Neurobiol. Aging, 28, 424, 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2006.01.002 Huang, 2007, A combination of intravenous and dietary docosahexaenoic acid significantly improves outcome after spinal cord injury, Brain, 130, 3004, 10.1093/brain/awm223 King, 2006, Omega-3 fatty acids improve recovery, whereas omega-6 fatty acids worsen outcome, after spinal cord injury in the adult rat, J. Neurosci., 26, 4672, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5539-05.2006 Zhang, 2008, No effect of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (EPA and DHA) supplementation on depressed mood and cognitive function: a randomised controlled trial—comments by Zhang and Li, Br. J. Nutr., 100, 1347, 10.1017/S0007114508975644 Rice, 2002, Food intake in rats is unaffected by the profile of dietary essential fatty acids, Physiol. Behav., 75, 611, 10.1016/S0031-9384(02)00666-2 Sharma, 2009, To scale or not to scale: the principles of dose extrapolation, Br. J. Pharmacol., 157, 907, 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2009.00267.x Reagan-Shaw, 2008, Dose translation from animal to human studies revisited, FASEB J., 22, 659, 10.1096/fj.07-9574LSF USFDA, 2005. Guidance for Industry: Estimating the Maximum Safe Starting Dose in Adult Healthy Volunteer. US Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, MD. Gorjão, 2009, Comparative effects of DHA and EPA on cell function, Pharmacol. Ther., 122, 56, 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2009.01.004 Brenna, 2002, Efficiency of conversion of alpha-linolenic acid to long chain n-3 fatty acids in man, Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care, 5, 127, 10.1097/00075197-200203000-00002 Burdge, 2002, Conversion of alpha-linolenic acid to eicosapentaenoic, docosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids in young women, Br. J. Nutr., 88, 411, 10.1079/BJN2002689 Pawlosky, 2001, Norman, physiological compartmental analysis of α-linolenic acid metabolism in adult humans, J. Lipid Res., 42, 1257, 10.1016/S0022-2275(20)31576-5 Gerster, 1998, Can adults adequately convert alpha-linolenic acid (18:3n-3) to eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3)?, Int. J. Vitam. Nutr. Res., 68, 159 Bernoud, 1999, Preferential transfer of 2-docosahexaenoyl-1-lysophosphatidylcholine through an in vitro blood–brain barrier over unesterified docosahexaenoic acid, J. Neurochem., 72, 338, 10.1046/j.1471-4159.1999.0720338.x Stanley, 2007, UK Food Standards Agency Workshop Report: the effects of the dietary n-6:n-3 fatty acid ratio on cardiovascular health, Br. J. Nutr., 98, 1305, 10.1017/S000711450784284X Hooper, 2006, Risks and benefits of omega 3 fats for mortality, cardiovascular disease, and cancer: systematic review, Br. Med. J., 752, 10.1136/bmj.38755.366331.2F von Schacky, 2007, Cardiovascular benefits of omega-3 fatty acids, Cardiovasc. Res., 73, 310, 10.1016/j.cardiores.2006.08.019 Appleton, 2006, Effects of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on depressed mood: systematic review of published trials, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 84, 1308, 10.1093/ajcn/84.6.1308 Richardson, 2008, n-3 Fatty acids and mood: the devil is in the detail, Br. J. Nutr., 99, 221, 10.1017/S0007114507824123