Management of gastrointestinal bleeding in children

Fox VL: Gastrointestinal bleeding in infancy and childhood. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 2000, 29:37–66. An excellent overview of the causes and the treatment approaches to pediatric GIB.

Heitlinger LA, McClung HJ: Gastrointestinal hemorrhage. In Pediatric Gastrointestinal Disease: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, Management, edn 2. Edited by Wyllie R, Hyams JS. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Co.; 1999:64–72.

Chaibou M, Tucci M, Dugas MA, et al.: Clinically significant upper gastrointestinal bleeding acquired in a pediatric intensive care unit: a prospective study. Pediatrics 1998, 102:933–938.

Teach SJ, Fleisher GR: Rectal bleeding in the pediatric emergency department. Ann Emerg Med 1994, 23:1252–1254.

Rayhorn N, Thrall C, Silber G: A review of the causes of upper gastrointestinal tract bleeding in children. Gastroenterol Nursing 2001, 24:23–27.

Rayhorn N, Thrall C, Silber G: A review of the causes of lower gastrointestinal tract bleeding in children. Gastroenterol Nursing 2001, 24:77–82.

Katon R: Complications of upper gastrointestinal endoscopy in the gastrointestinal bleeder. Dig Dis Sci 1981, 26:47S-54S.

Chameides L, Hazinski MF, eds: Textbook of Pediatric Advanced Life Support. Dallas: American Heart Association; 1994:1–10.

Olson AD, Hillemeier AC: Gastrointestinal hemorrhage. In Pediatric Gastrointestinal Disease: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, Management. Edited by Wyllie R, Hyams JS. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Co.; 1993:251–270.

Garcia-Tsao G: Current management of the complications of cirrhosis and portal hypertension: variceal hemorrhage, ascites, and spontaneous bacterial peritonitis. Gastroenterology 2001, 120:726–748. A superb review of the most difficult dilemmas encountered in caring for patients with end-stage liver disease.

Kravetz D, Sikuler E, Groszman RJ: Splanchnic and systemic hemodynamics in portal hypertensive rats during hemorrhage and blood volume restitution. Gastroenterology 1986, 90:1232–1240.

Luk G, Bynum T, Hendrix T: Gastric aspiration in localization of gastrointestinal hemorrhage. JAMA 1979, 241:576–578.

Rimada A, Garcia-Tsao G, Navasa M, et al.: Diagnosis, treatment, and prophylaxis of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis: a consensus document. J Hepatol 2000, 32:142–153.

Goulis J, Armonis A, Patch D, et al.: Bacterial infection is independently associated with failure to control bleeding in cirrhotic patients with gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Hepatology 1998, 27:1207–1212.

Bernard B, Grange JD, Khac EN, et al.: Antibiotic prophylaxis for the prevention of bacterial infections in cirrhotic patients with gastrointestinal bleeding: a meta-analysis. Hepatology 1999, 29:1655–1661.

Felisart J, Rimola A, Arroyo V, et al.: Cefotaxime is more effective than is ampicillin-tobramycin in cirrhotics with severe infections. Hepatology 1985, 5:457–462.

Bajjoka AE: Ranitidine-induced thrombocytopenia. Arch Intern Med 1991, 151:203.

Oymak O, Akpolat T, Arik N, et al.: Reversible neutropenia and thrombocytopenia during famotidine treatment. Ann Pharmacother 1994, 28:406–407.

Siberry GK, Iannone R, eds: The Harriet Lane Handbook edn 15. St. Louis: Mosby; 2000.

Heiselman DE, Horlisz DT, Fricker R, et al.: Randomized comparison of gastric pH control with intermittent and continuous infusion of famotidine in ICU patients. Am J Gastroenterol 1995, 90:277–279.

Lau JYW, Sung JJY, Lee KK, et al.: Effect of intravenous omeprazole on recurrent bleeding after endoscopic treatment of bleeding peptic ulcer. N Engl J Med 2000, 343:310–316.

McKiernan PJ: Treatment of variceal bleeding. Gastrointest Endosc Clin North Am 2001, 11:789–812. Outstanding and comprehensive review of an overlooked topic in pediatric gastroenterology.

Bosch J, Teres J: Immediate management of variceal hemorrhage: pharmacologic measures and balloon tamponade. Gastrointest Endosc Clin North Am 1992, 2:43–58.

Escorsell A, Bandi JC, Andreu V, et al.: Desensitization to the effects of intravenous octreotide in cirrhotic patients with portal hypertension. Gastroenterology 2001, 120:161–169.

Wyllie R, Kay MH: Therapeutic intervention for nonvariceal gastrointestinal hemorrhage. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1996, 22:123–133. An excellent review of equipment, medications, and techniques used in management of nonvariceal pediatric GIB.

Richter JM, Christensen MR, Kaplan LM, et al.: Effectiveness of current technology in the diagnosis and management of lower gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Gastrointest Endosc 1995, 41:93–98.

Sugawa C: Endoscopic diagnosis and treatment of upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Surg Clin North Am 1989, 69:1167–1183.

Goncalves ME, Cardoso SR, Maksoud JG: Prophylactic sclerotherapy in children with esophageal varices: long-term results of a controlled prospective randomized trial. J Pediatr Surg 2000, 35:401–405.

Grund KE, Straub T, Farin G: New haemostatic techniques: argon plasma coagulation. Baillieres Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 1999, 13:67–84.

Wyllie R, Kay M: Esophagogastroduodensocopy, colonoscopy, and related techniques. In Pediatric Gastrointestinal Disease: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, Management. Edited by Wyllie R, Hyams JS. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Co.; 1993:967–98.

Stevens PD, Lebwhol O: Hypertensive emergency and ventricular tachycardia after endoscopic epinephrine injection of a Mallory-Weiss tear. Gastrointest Endosc 1994, 40:77–78.

Hirao M, Kobayashi T, Masuda K, et al.: Endoscopic local injection of hypertonic saline-epinephrine solution to arrest hemorrhage from the upper gastrointestinal tract. Gastrointest Endosc 1985, 31:313–317.

Loperfido S, Patelli G, LaTorre L: Extensive necrosis of gastric mucosa following injection therapy of bleeding peptic ulcer. Endoscopy 1990, 22:285–86.

Cotton PB, Williams CB: Practical Gastrointestinal Endoscopy, edn 4. Oxford: Blackwell Science Ltd; 1996.

Laine L: Determination of optimal technique for bipolar electrocoagulation treatment. Gastroenterology 1991, 100:107–112.

Laine L: Bipolar/multipolar electrocoagulation. Gastrointest Endosc 1990, 36:538–541.

Rex DK, Lewis BS, Waye JD: Colonoscopy and endoscopic therapy for delayed post polypectomy hemorrhage. Gastrointest Endosc 1992, 38:127–129.

Noronha PA, Leist MH: Endoscopic laser therapy for gastrointestinal bleeding from congenital vascular lesions. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1988, 7:375–378.

Kendrick ML, Buttar NS, Anderson MA, et al.: Intraoperative enteroscopy in management of obscure gastrointestinal bleeding. J Gastrointestinal Surg 2001, 5:162–167.

Lee KH, Yeung CK, Tam YH, et al.: Laparoscopy for definitive diagnosis and treatment of gastrointestinal bleeding of obscure origin in children. J Pediatr Surg 2000, 35:1291–1293.

Hassall E, Israel D: Portal hypertension. In Pediatric Gastrointestinal Disease: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, Management. Edited by Wyllie R, Hyams JS. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Co.; 1993:370–390.

Sharara AI, Rockey DC: Gastroesophageal variceal hemorrhage. N Engl J Med 2001, 345:669–681. Wonderful review of variceal management from the adult perspective.

Grace ND, Groszman RJ, Garcia-Tsao G, et al.: Portal hypertension and variceal bleeding: an AASLD single topic symposium. Hepatology 1998, 28:868–880.

deFranchis R, Primignani M, Cosentino F: Endoscopic diagnosis and classification of varices. Gastrointestinal Endosc Clin North Am 1992, 2:17–30.

Ohi R, Mochizuki I, Komatsu K, et al.: Portal hypertension after successful hepatic portoenterostomy in biliary atresia. J Pediatr Surg 1986, 21:271–274.

Bernard O, Alvarez F, Brunelle F, et al.: Portal hypertension in children. Clin Gastroenterol 1985, 14:33–35.

Shashidhar H, Langhans N, Grand RJ: Propranolol in prevention of portal hypertensive hemorrhage in children: a pilot study. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1999, 29:12–17.

Ozsoylu S, Kocak N, Demir H, et al.: Propranolol for primary and secondary prophylaxis of variceal bleeding in children with cirrhosis. Turk J Pediatr 2000, 42:31–33.

Angelico M, Carli L, Piat C, et al.: Effects of isosorbide-5-mononitrate compared with propranolol on first bleeding and long-term survival in cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 1997, 113:1632–1639.

Besson I, Ingrand P, Person B, et al.: Sclerotherapy with or without octreotide for acute variceal bleeding. N Engl J Med 1995, 333:555–560.

Sokal EM, Van Hoorebeck N, Van Obbergh L, et al.: Upper gastrointestinal tract bleeding in cirrhotic children candidates for liver transplantation. Eur J Pediatr 1992, 151:326–328.

Pashankar D, Jamieson DH, Israel DM: Downhill esophageal varices. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1999, 29:360–362.

Ohnuma N, Takahashi H, Tanabe M, et al.: Endoscopic variceal ligation using a clipping apparatus in children with portal hypertension. Endoscopy 1997, 29:86–90.

Williams SG, Peters JA, Westaby D: Thrombin—an effective treatment for gastric variceal haemorrhage. Gut 1994, 35:1287–1289.

Stockwell JA, Werner HA, Marsano LS: Dieulafoy’s lesion in an infant: a rare cause of massive gastrointestinal bleeding. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2000, 31:68–70.

Gonzalez D, Elizondo BJ, Haslag S, et al.: Chronic subcutaneous octreotide decreases gastrointestinal blood loss in blue rubber-bleb nevus syndrome. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2001, 33:183–188.

Zellos A, Schwarz KB: Efficacy of octreotide in children with chronic gastrointestinal bleeding. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2000, 30:442–446.