Management of Ischemic Heart Disease in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease

United States Renal Data System: causes of death in ESRD. Am J Kidney Dis 1999; 34(2 Suppl. 1): S87–S94. United States Renal Data System: patient mortality and survival in ESRD. Am J Kidney Dis 1999; 34(2 Suppl. 1): S74–S86. Foley RN, Parfrey PS, Sarnak MJ. Clinical epidemiology of cardiovascular disease in chronic renal disease. Am J Kidney Dis 1998; 32(5 Suppl. 3): S112–9. Manske CL, Wang Y, Rector T, et al. Coronary revascularization in insulin-dependent diabetic patients with chronic renal failure. Lancet 1992; 340: 998–1002. Lippert J, Ritz E, Schwarzbeck A, et al. The rising tide of endstage renal failure from diabetic nephropathy type II: an epidemiological analysis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1995; 10: 462–7. Trespalacios FC, Taylor AJ, Agodoa LY, et al. Incident acute coronary syndromes in chronic dialysis patients in the United States. Kidney Int 2002; 62: 1799–805. Cheung AK, Sarnak MJ, Yan G, et al. Cardiac diseases in maintenance hemodialysis patients: results of the HEMO study. Kidney Int 2004; 65: 2380–9. Parekh RS, Zhang L, Fivush BA, et al. Incidence of atherosclerosis by race in the dialysis morbidity and mortality study: a sample of the US ESRD population. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005; 16: 1420–6. Reddan DN, Szczech LA, Tuttle RH, et al. Chronic kidney disease, mortality, and treatment strategies among patients with clinically significant coronary artery disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 2003; 14: 2373–80. Henry RM, Kostense PJ, Bos G, et al. Mild renal insufficiency is associated with increased cardiovascular mortality: the Hoorn Study. Kidney Int 2002; 62: 1402–7. U. S. Renal Data System. USRDS 2003 Annual Report: atlas of end-stage renal disease in the United States. Bethesda (MD): National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, 2003. Jokin N, Hase H, Nakamura R, et al. Onset of coronary artery disease prior to initiation of hemodialysis in patients with end-stage renal disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1997; 12: 718–23. Levey AS, Beto JA, Coronado BE, et al. Controlling the epidemic of cardiovascular disease in chronic renal disease: what do we know? What do we need to learn? Where do we go from here? National Kidney Foundation Task Force on Cardiovascular Disease. Am J Kidney Dis 1998; 32: 853–906. Wright RS, Reeder GS, Herzog CA, et al. Acute myocardial infarction and renal dysfunction: a high risk combination. Ann Intern Med 2002; 137: 563–70. Herzog CA, Ma JZ, Collins AJ. Poor long-term survival after acute myocardial infarction among patients on long-term dialysis. N Engl J Med 1998; 339: 799–805. Herzog CA. Acute MI in dialysis patients: how can we improve the outlook. J Crit Illn 1999; 14: 613–21. Rosamond WD, Chambless LE, Folsom AR, et al. Trends in the incidence of myocardial infarction and in mortality due to coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med 1998; 339: 861–7. Luke RG. Chronic renal failure: a vasculopathic state. N Engl J Med 1998; 339: 841–3. Vaitkus PT. Current status of prevention, diagnosis, and management of coronary artery disease in patients with kidney failure. Am Heart J 2000; 139: 1000–8. Venkatesan J, Henrick WL. Anemia, hypertension, and myocardial dysfunction in end-stage renal disease. Semin Nephrol 1997; 17: 257–69. Tvedegaard E, Kamstrup O. The effect of chronic renal failure in rabbits on plasma lipids and the concentration of cholesterol, calcium and phosphate in the aortic wall. Proc Eur Dial Transplant Assoc 1980; 17240–6. Oh J, Wunsch R, Turzer M, et al. Advanced coronary and carotid arteriopathy in young adults with childhood-onset chronic renal failure. Circulation 2002; 106(1): 100–5. Stancanelli B, Malatino LS, Malaponte G, et al. Pulse pressure is an independent predictor of aortic stiffness in patients with mild to moderate chronic kidney disease. Kidney Blood Press Res 2007; 30: 283–8. Aronow WS, Ahn C, Mercando AD, et al. Prevalence of coronary artery disease, complex ventricular arrythmias, and silent myocardial ischaemia and incidence of new coronary artery events in older persons with chronic renal insufficiency and with normal renal function. Am J Cardiol 2000; 86: 1142–3. Zawada ET, Stinson JB, Done G. New perspectives on coronary artery disease in haemodialysis patients. South Med J 1982; 75: 694–6. Herzog CA. Diagnosis and treatment of ischemic heart disease in dialysis patients. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 1997; 6: 558–65. de Lemos JA, Hillis LD. Diagnosis and management of coronary artery disease in patients with end-stage renal disease on hemodialysis. J Am Soc Nephrol 1996; 7: 2044–54. Goldsmith DJ, Covic A. Coronary artery disease in ureamia: etiology, diagnosis and therapy. Kidney Int 2001; 60: 2059–78. Amann K, Ritz E. Cardiac disease in chronic uremia: pathophysiology. Adv Renal Replace Ther 1997; 4: 212–24. US Renal Data System. USRDS 2001 annual data report. Bethesda (MD): National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, 2001. Amann K, Rychlik I, Miltenberger-Milteny G, et al. Left ventricular hypertrophy in renal failure. Kidney Int 1998; 68: S78–85. Kasiske BL, Cangro CB, Hariharan S, et al. The evaluation of renal transplantation candidates: clinical practice guidelines. Am J Transplant 2002; 1 Suppl. 2: 1–95. Gaston RS, Danovitch GM, Adams PL, et al. The report of a National Conference on the Wait List for Kidney Transplantation. Am J Transplant 2003; 3: 775–85 K/DOQI Clinical practice guidelines for cardiovascular disease in dialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 2005; 45 Suppl. 3: S1. Gill JS, Ma I, Landsberg D, et al. Cardiovascular events and investigation in patients who are awaiting cadaveric kidney transplantation. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005; 16: 808–16. Savonitto S, Ardissino D, Granger CB, et al. Prognostic value of the admission electrocardiogram in acute coronary syndromes. JAMA 1999; 281: 707–13. Charytan DM, Setoguchi S, Solomon DH, et al. Clinical presentation of myocardial infarction contributes to lower use of coronary angiography in patients with chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int 2007; 71: 938–45. Kanderian AS, Francis GS. Cardiac troponins and chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int 2006; 69: 1112–4. Van Lente F, McErlean ES, DeLuca SA, et al. Ability of troponin to predict adverse outcomes in patients with renal insufficiency and suspected acute coronary syndromes: a case matched study. J Am Coll Cardiol 1999; 33: 471–8. Hedayati SS, Szczech LA. The evaluation of underlying cardiovascular disease among patients with end-stage renal disease. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis 2004; 11: 246–253. Jaffe AS, Ritter C, Meltzer V, et al. Unmasking artifactual increases in creatine kinase isoenzymes in patients with renal failure. J Lab Clin Med 1984; 104: 193–202. Robbins MJ, Epstein EM, Shah S. Creatine kinase subform analysis in haemodialysis patients without acute coronary syndromes. Nephron 1997; 76: 296–9. Croitoru M, Taegtmeyer H. Spurious rises in troponin T in end-stage renal disease. Lancet 1995; 346: 1558. Bhayana V, Gougoulias T, Cohoe S, et al. Discordance between results for serum troponin T and troponin I in renal disease. Clin Chem 1995; 41: 312–7. Martin GS, Becker BN, Schulman G. Cardiac troponin-I accurately predicts myocardial injury in renal failure. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1998; 13: 1709–12. McLaurin MD, Apple FS, Falahati A, et al. Cardiac troponin I and creatine kinase-MB mass to rule out myocardial injury in hospitalized patients with renal insufficiency. Am J Cardiol 1998; 82: 973–5. Aviles RJ, Askari AT, Ohman EM, et al. Troponin T levels in patients with acute coronary syndromes, with and without renal dysfunction. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 2047–52. Apple FS, Murakami MM, Pearce LA, et al. Predictive value of cardiac troponin I and T for subsequent death in endstage renal disease. Circulation 2002; 106: 2941–5. Lindahl B, Venge P, Wallentin L. Troponin T identifies patients with unstable coronary artery disease who benefit from long term antithrombotic protection. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997; 29: 43–8. Cannon CP, Weintraub WS, Demopoulos LA, et al. Comparison of early invasive and conservative strategies in patients with unstable syndromes treated with the glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitor tirofiban. N Engl J Med 2001; 344: 1879–87. Fuchs S, Kornowski R, Mehran R, et al. Prognostic value of cardiac troponin-I levels following catheter-based coronary interventions. Am J Cardiol 2000; 85: 1077–82. Gruberg L, Mintz GS, Mehran R, et al. The prognostic implications of further renal function deterioration within 48h of interventional coronary procedures in patients with pre- existent chronic renal insufficiency. J Am Coll Cardiol 2000; 36: 1542–8. Tepel M, van der Giet M, Schwarzfeld C, et al. Prevention of radiographic-contrast-agent-induced reductions in renal function by acetylcysteine. N Engl J Med 2000; 343: 180–4. Shyu KG, Cheng JJ, Kuan P. Acetylcysteine protects against acute renal damage in patients with abnormal renal function undergoing a coronary procedure. J Am Coll Cardiol 2002; 40: 1383–8. Diaz-Sandoval LJ, Kosowsky BD, Losordo DW. Acetylcysteine to prevent angiography-related renal tissue injury (the APART trial). Am J Cardiol 2002; 89: 356–8. Marenzi G, Assanelli E, Marana I, et al. N Acetylcysteine and contrast-induced nephropathy in primary angioplasty. N Engl J Med 2006; 354: 2773–82. Mueller C, Buerkle G, Buettner HJ, et al. Prevention of contrast media-associated nephropathy: randomized comparison of 2 hydration regimens in 1620 patients undergoing coronary angioplasty. Arch Intern Med 2002; 162: 329–36. Aspelin P, Aubry P, Fransson SG, et al. Nephrotoxic effects in high-risk patients undergoing angiography. N Engl J Med 2003; 348: 491–9. Singh AK, Szczech L, Tang KL, et al. Correction of anemia with epoetin alfa in chronic kidney disease. N Engl J Med 2006; 355: 2085–98. Fellström B, Zannad F, Schmieder R, et al. Effect of rosuvastatin on outcomes in chronic haemodialysis patients: design and rationale of the AURORA study. Curr Control Trials Cardiovasc Med 2005; 6: 9. Berger AK, Duval S, Krumholz HM. Aspirin, beta-blocker, and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor therapy in patients with end-stage renal disease and an acute myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003; 42: 201–8. Shlipak MG, Heidenreich PA, Noguchi H, et al. Association of renal insufficiency with treatment and outcomes after myocardial infarction in elderly patients. Ann Intern Med 2002; 137: 555–62. Beattie JN, Soman SS, Sandberg KR, et al. Determinants of mortality after myocardial infarction in patients with advanced renal dysfunction. Am J Kidney Dis 2001; 37: 1191–200. Sjøgren P, Dragsted L, Christensen CB. Myoclonus and spasms during treatment with high doses of intravenous morphine in renal failure. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1993; 37: 780–2. Bunn R, Ashley C. Renal drug handbook. Oxford: Radcliffe Medical Press, 1999. Chauvin M, Sandouk P, Sherrmann JM, et al. Morphine pharmacokinetics in renal failure. Anaesthesiology 1987; 66: 327–31. Davies G, Kingswood C, Street M. Pharmacokinetics of opioids in renal dysfunction. Clin Pharmacokinet 1996; 31: 410–22. McCullough PA, Sandberg KR, Borzak S, et al. Benefits of aspirin and beta-blockade after myocardial infarction in patients with chronic kidney disease. Am Heart J 2002; 144: 226–32. Yusuf S, Zhao F, Mehta SR, et al. Effects of clopidogrel in addition to aspirin in patients with acute coronary syndromes without ST-segment elevation. N Engl J Med 2001; 345: 494–502. Gibbons RJ, Chatterjee K, Daley J, et al. ACC/AHA/ACP-ASIM guidelines for the management of patients with chronic stable angina: executive summary and recommendations. A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Committee on Management of Patients with Chronic Stable Angina). Circulation 1999; 99: 2829–48. Januzzi JL, Snapinn SM, DiBattiste PM, et al. Benefits and safety of tirofiban among acute coronary syndrome patients with mild to moderate renal insufficiency. Circulation 2002; 105: 2361–6. Reddan DN, O’Shea JC, Sarembock IJ, et al. Treatment effects of eptifibatide in planned coronary stent implantation in patients with chronic kidney disease (ESPRIT Trial). Am J Cardiol 2003; 91: 17–21. Jeremias A, Bhatt DL, Chew DP, et al. Safety of abciximab during percutaneous coronary intervention in patients with chronic renal insufficiency. Am J Cardiol 2002; 89: 1209–11. Best PJ, Lennon R, Gersh BJ, et al. Safety of abciximab in patients with chronic renal insufficiency who are undergoing percutaneous coronary interventions. Am Heart J 2003; 146: 345–50. Frilling B, Zahn R, Fraiture B, et al. Comparison of efficacy and complication rates after percutaneous coronary interventions in patients with and without renal insufficiency treated with abciximab. Am J Cardiol 2002; 89: 450–2. Hirsch J, Warkentin TE, Shaughnessy SG, et al. Heparin and low-molecular-weight heparin: mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics, dosing, monitoring, efficacy, and safety. Chest 2001 Jan; 119(I Suppl.): 64S–94S. Brophy DF, Wazny LD, Gehr TW, et al. The pharmacokinetics of subcutaneous enoxaparin in end-stage renal disease. Pharmacotherapy 2001; 21: 169–74. Cadroy Y, Pourrat J, Baladre MF, et al. Delayed elimination of enoxaparin in patients with chronic renal insufficiency. Thromb Res 1991; 63: 385–90. Gerlach AT, Pickworth KK, Seth SK, et al. Enoxaparin and bleeding complications: a review in patients with and without renal insufficiency. Pharmacotherapy 2000; 20: 771–5. Lim W, Cook DJ, Crowther MA. Safety and efficacy of low molecular weight heparins for hemodialysis in patients with end-stage renal failure: a metaanalysis of randomized trials. J Am Soc Nephrol 2004; 15: 3192–206. Hirsch J, Warkentin TE, Raschke R, et al. Heparin and low-molecular-weight heparin: mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics, dosing considerations, monitoring, efficacy, and safety. Chest 1998; 114: 489S–510S. Hassan WM, Flaker GC, Feutz C, et al. Improved anticoagulation with a weight adjusted heparin nomogram in patients with acute coronary syndromes: a randomised trial. J Thromb Thrombolysis 1995; 2: 245–9. Boneau B, Caranobe C, Sie P. Pharmacokinetics of heparin and low-molecular weight heparin. Baillieres Clin Haematol 1990; 3: 531–44. House AK, Potter JM, Smith PA, et al. Heparinization an aortic surgery. J Cardiovasc Surg (Torino) 1988; 29: 707–11. Hirsch J, Anand SS, Halperin JL, et al. Guide to anticoagulation therapy: heparin. A statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2001; 103: 2994–3018 The Assessment of the Safety and Efficacy of New Thrombolytic Regimen (ASSENT-3) Investigators. Efficacy and safety of tenecteplase in combination with enoxaparin, abciximab, or unfractionated heparin: the ASSENT-3 randomised trial in acute myocardial infarction. Lancet 2001; 358: 605–13. Robson R. The use of bivalirudin in patients with renal impairment. J Invasive Cardiol 2000; 12 Suppl. F: 33F–36F. Herzog CA, Ma JZ, Collins AJ. Long-term survival of dialysis patients receiving thrombolytic therapy for acute myocardial infarction in the U.S. [abstract]. Circulation 1999; 100 Suppl. I: I–304 The GUSTO V Investigators. Reperfusion therapy for acute myocardial infarction with fibrinolytic therapy or combination reduced fibrinolytic therapy and platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibition. Lancet 2001; 357: 1905–14. The Bypass Angioplasty Revascularization Investigation (BARI) Investigators. Comparison of coronary bypass surgery with angioplasty in patients with multivessel disease. N Engl J Med 1996; 335: 217–25. Herzog CA, Ma JZ, Collins AJ. Long-term outcome of dialysis patients in the United States with coronary revascularization procedures. Kidney Int 1999; 56: 324–32. Szczech LA, Reddan DN, Owen WF, et al. Differential survival after coronary revascularization procedures among patients with renal insufficiency. Kidney Int 2001; 60: 292–9. Rinehart A, Herzog C, Collins A, et al. A comparison of coronary angioplasty and coronary artery bypass grafting outcomes in chronic dialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 1995; 25: 281–90. Simsir SA, Kohlman-Trigoboff D, Flood R, et al. A comparison of coronary artery bypass grafting and percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty in patients on hemodialysis. Cardiovasc Surg 1998; 6: 500–5. Koyanagi T, Nishida H, Kitamura M, et al. Comparison of clinical outcomes of coronary artery bypass grafting and percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty in renal dialysis patients. Ann Thorac Surg 1996; 61: 1793–6. Legrand VMG, Serruys PW, Unger F, et al. Three-year outcome after coronary stenting versus bypass surgery for the treatment of multivessel disease. Circulation 2004; 109: 1114–20. Hemmelgarn BR, Southern D, Culleton BF, et al. Survival after coronary revascularization among patients with kidney disease. Circulation 2004; 110: 1890–5. Rubenstein MH, Harrell LC, Sheynberg BV, et al. Are patients with renal failure good candidates for percutaneous coronary revascularization in the new device era? Circulation 2000; 102: 2966–72. Liu JY, Birkmeyer NJO, Sanders JH, et al. Risks of morbidity and mortality in dialysis patients undergoing coronary artery bypass surgery. Circulation 2000; 102: 2973–7. Morice M, Serruys PW, Sousa JE, et al. A randomized comparison of a sirolimuseluting stent with a standard stent for coronary revascularization. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 1773–80. Morice M, Serruys P, Costantini C, et al. Ischemic Heart Disease and Renal Failure: two-year follow-up of the RAVEL study. A randomized study with the sirolimus-eluting Bx VELOCITY stent in the treatment of patients with denovo native coronary artery lesions [abstract]. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003; 41 Suppl. A: 32A. Sousa JE, Serruys PW, Costa MA. New frontiers in cardiology: drug-eluting stents. Part I. Circulation 2003; 107: 2274–9. Halkin A, Mehran R, Casey CW, et al. Impact of moderate renal insufficiency on restenosis and adverse clinical events after paclitaxel-eluting and bare metal stent implantation: results from the TAXUS-IV trial. Am Heart J 2005; 150: 1163–70 K/DOQI Clinical practice guidelines for cardiovascular disease in dialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 2005; 45 Suppl. 3: S1. Tonelli M, Jose P, Curhan G, et al. Proteinuria, impaired kidney function, and adverse outcomes in people with coronary disease: analysis of a previously conducted randomized trial. BMJ 2006; 332: 1426. Anavekar NS, McMurray JJV, Velazquez EJ, et al. Relation between renal dysfunction and cardiovascular outcomes after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 2004; 351: 1285–95. Al Suwaidi J, Reddan DN, Williams K, et al. Prognostic implications of abnormalities in renal function in patients with acute coronary syndromes. Circulation 2002; 106: 974–80. Hemmelgarn BR, Southern D, Humphries KH, et al. Refined characterization of the association between kidney function and mortality in patients undergoing cardiac catheterization. Eur Heart J 2006; 27: 1191–7. Henry RMA, Kamp O, Kostense PJ, et al. Mild renal insufficiency is associated with increased left ventricular mass in men, but not in women: an arterial stiffness-related phenomenon: the Hoorn Study. Kidney Int 2005; 68(2): 673–9. Muntner P, He J, Hamm L, et al. Renal insufficiency and subsequent death resulting from cardiovascular disease in the United States. J Am Soc Nephrol 2002; 13: 745–53. Go AS, Chertow GM, Fan D, et al. Chronic kidney disease and the risks of death, cardiovascular events, and hospitalization. N Engl J Med 2004; 351: 1296–305. Shlipak MG, Fried LF, Crump C, et al. Elevations of inflammatory and procoagulant biomarkers in elderly persons with renal insufficiency. Circulation 2003; 107: 87–92. Muntner P, Hamm LL, Kusek JW, et al. The prevalence of nontraditional risk factors for coronary heart disease in patients with chronic kidney disease. Ann Intern Med 2004; 140: 9–17. Hsu C-Y, McCulloch CE, Curhan GC. Epidemiology of anemia associated with chronic renal insufficiency among adults in the United States: results from the third national health and nutrition epidemiology survey. J Am Soc Nephrol 2002; 13: 504–10. Raggi P, Boulay A, Chasan-Taber S, et al. Cardiac calcification in adult hemodialysis patients: a link between end-stage renal disease and cardiovascular disease? J Am Coll Cardiol 2002; 39: 695–701. Perazella MA, Khan S. Increased mortality in chronic kidney disease: a call to action. Am J Med Sci 2006; 331: 150–3 Cardiovascular health strategy group. building healthier hearts. Dublin: The Stationery Office, 1999. Wood D, DeBacker G, Faergeman O, et al. Prevention of coronary heart disease in clinical practice: recommendations of the Second Joint Task Force of European and other Societies on coronary prevention. Eur Heart J 1998; 19: 1434–503. Levey AS. Measurement of renal function in chronic renal disease. Kidney Int 1990; 38: 167–84. Swedko PJ, Clark HD, Paramsothy K, et al. Serum creatinine is an inadequate screening test for renal failure in elderly patients. Arch Intern Med 2003; 163: 356–60. Smith H. Diseases of the kidney and urinary tract. the kidney: structure and function in health and disease. New York: Oxford University Press, 1951: 836–87. McCullough PA. Why is chronic kidney disease the 'spoiler’ for cardiovascular outcomes? J Am Coll Cardiol 2003; 41: 725–8. Ezekowitz J, McAlister FA, Humphries KH, et al. The association among renal insufficiency, pharmacotherapy, and outcomes in 6,427 patients with heart failure and coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004; 44: 1587–92. Biesenbach G, Zazgornik J. Influence of smoking on the survival rate of diabetic patients requiring hemodialysis. Diabetes Care 1996; 19: 625–628. Wilson K, Gibson N, Willan A, et al. Effect of smoking cessation on mortality after myocardial infarction: meta-analysis of cohort studies. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160: 939–44. Levis EJ, Hunsicker LG, Clarke WR, et al. Renoprotective effect of the angiotensin-receptor antagonist irbesartan in patients with nephropathy due to type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2001; 345: 851–60. Effects of ramipril on cardiovascular and microvascular outcomes in people with diabetes mellitus: results of the HOPE study and MICRO-HOPE substudy. Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators. Lancet 2000; 355: 253–9. Chobanian AV, Bakris GI, Black H, for the National Heart, Lung, And Blood Institute Joint National Committee On Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, And Treatment Of High Blood Pressure; National High Blood Pressure Education Program Coordinating Committee: the Seventh Report Of The Joint National Committee On Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, And Treatment Of High Blood Pressure: the JNC 7 Report. JAMA 2003; 289: 2560–72. Hampl H, Sternberg C, Berweck S, et al. Regression of left ventricular hypertrophy in hemodialysis patients is possible. Clin Nephrol 2002; 58 Suppl. 1: S73–96. Li PK, Chow KM, Wong TY, et al. Effects of an angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor on residual renal function in patients receiving peritoneal dialysis: a randomized, controlled study. Ann Intern Med 2003; 139: 105–12. Bakris GL. Role For beta-blockers in the management of diabetic kidney disease. Am J Hypertens 2003; 16: 7S–12S. Cice G, Ferrara L, D’Andrea A, et al. Carvedilol increases two year survival in dialysis patients with dilated cardiomyopathy: a prospective, placebo-controlled trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003; 41: 1438–44. Marchi F, Cirello C. Efficacy of carvedilol in mild to moderate essential hypertension and effects on microalbuminuria: a multicenter, randomized, open-label, controlled study versus atenolol. Adv Ther 1995; 12: 212–21. Luft FC, Agarwal B. Microalbuminuria as a predictive factor for cardiovascular events. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1999; 33 Suppl. 1: S11–5. Dupont AG, Van der Niepen P, Taeymans Y, et al. Effect of carvedilol on ambulatory blood pressure, renal hemodynamics, and cardiac function in essential hypertension. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1987; 10 Suppl. 11: S130–6. Borchard U. Pharmacokinetics of beta-adrenoreceptor blocking agents: clinical significance of hepatic and/or renal clearance. Clin Physiol Biochem 1990; 8 Suppl. 2: 28–34. Buemi M, Senatore M, Corica F, et al. Statins and progressive renal disease. Med Res Rev 2002; 22: 76–84. Oda H, Keane WF. Recent advances in statins and the kidney. Kidney Int 1999; 71 Suppl.: S2–5. Wanner C, Krane V, März W, et al., for the German Diabetes and Dialysis Study Investigators. Atorvastatin in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus undergoing hemodialysis. N Engl J Med 2005; 353: 238–48. Fried LF, Orchard TJ, Kasiske BL. Effect of lipid reduction on the progression of renal disease: a meta-analysis. Kidney Int 2001; 59: 260–9. Tonelli M, Moyé L, Sacks FM, et al., on behalf of the Cholesterol and Recurrent Events (CARE) Trial Investigators. Pravastatin for secondary prevention of cardiovascular events in persons with mild chronic renal insufficiency. Ann Intern Med 2003; 138: 98–104. Bianchi S, Bigazzi R, Caiazza A, et al. A controlled, prospective study of the effects of atorvastatin on proteinuria and progression of kidney disease. Am J Kidney Dis 2003; 41: 565–70. Kovesdy CP, Anderson JE, Kalantar-Zadeh K. Inverse association between lipid levels and mortality in men with chronic kidney disease who are not yet on dialysis: effects of case mix and the malnutrition-inflammation-cachexia syndrome. J Am Soc Nephrol 2007; 18(1): 304–11 Executive Summary of The Third Report of The National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, And Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol In Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA 2001; 285: 2486–97. Kasiske B, Cosio FG, Beto J, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for managing dyslipidemias in kidney transplant patients: a report from the Managing Dyslipidemias in Chronic Kidney Disease Work Group of the National Kidney Foundation Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative. Am J Transplant 2004; 4 Suppl. 7: 13–53. Baigent C, Landry M. Study of Heart and Renal Protection (SHARP). Kidney Int Suppl 2003; 84: S207–10. Weisman SM, Graham DY. Evaluation of the benefits and risks of low-dose aspirin in the secondary prevention of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events. Arch Intern Med 2002; 162: 2197–202. Winchester JF. Therapeutic uses of aspirin in renal diseases. Am J Kidney Dis 1996; 28 Suppl. 1: S20–23. Van Guidener C, Stam F, Stehouwer CD. Homocysteine metabolism in renal failure. Kidney Int 2001; 78 Suppl. 59: S234–237. Moustapha A, Naso A, Nahlawi M, et al. Prospective study of hyperhomocystinemia as an adverse cardiovascular risk factor inend-stage renal disease. Circulation 1998; 97: 138–41. Shemin D, Bostom Ag, Seihub J. Treatment of hyperhomocystinemia in end-stage renal disease. Am J Kidney Dis 2001; 38 Suppl. 1: S91–4. Boaz M, Smetana S, Weinstein T, et al. Secondary prevention with antioxidants of cardiovascular disease in endstage renal disease (SPACE): randomized placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2000; 356: 1213–8. Tepel M, van der Giet M, Statz M, et al. The antioxidant acetylcysteine reduces cardiovascular events in patients with end-stage renal failure: a randomized, controlled trial. Circulation 2003; 107: 992–5.