Local Climate Zones for Urban Temperature Studies
Tóm tắt
The effect of urban development on local thermal climate is widely documented in scientific literature. Observations of urban–rural air temperature differences—or urban heat islands (UHIs)—have been reported for cities and regions worldwide, often with local field sites that are extremely diverse in their physical and climatological characteristics. These sites are usually described only as “urban” or “rural,” leaving much uncertainty about the actual exposure and land cover of the sites. To address the inadequacies of urban–rural description, the “local climate zone” (LCZ) classification system has been developed. The LCZ system comprises 17 zone types at the local scale (102 to 104 m). Each type is unique in its combination of surface structure, cover, and human activity. Classification of sites into appropriate LCZs requires basic metadata and surface characterization. The zone definitions provide a standard framework for reporting and comparing field sites and their temperature observations. The LCZ system is designed primarily for urban heat island researchers, but it has derivative uses for city planners, landscape ecologists, and global climate change investigators.
Từ khóa
Tài liệu tham khảo
Aguilar, 2003, Guidance on metadata and homogenization, 53
Anderson, 1976, A land use and land cover classification system for use with remote sensor data, 28
Auer, 1978, Correlation of land use and cover with meteorological anomalies, J. Appl. Meteor., 17, 636, 10.1175/1520-0450(1978)017<0636:COLUAC>2.0.CO;2
Balchin, 1947, A micro-climatological investigation of Bath and the surrounding district, Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 73, 297, 10.1002/qj.49707331706
Black, M., 1952: Critical Thinking: An Introduction to Logic and Scientific Method.2nd ed. Prentice Hall, 459pp.
Brunn, S. D., and J. F.Williams, Eds., 1983: Cities of the World: World Regional Urban Development.Harper and Row, 506pp.
Chandler, T. J., 1965: The Climate of London.Hutchinson, 292pp.
Chow, 2006, Temporal dynamics of the urban heat island of Singapore, Int. J. Climatol., 26, 2243, 10.1002/joc.1364
Davenport, 2000, Estimating the roughness of cities and sheltered country, 12th Conf. on Applied Climatology, 96
Davey, 2005, Microclimate exposures of surface-based weather stations: Implications for the assessment of long-term temperature trends, Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 86, 497, 10.1175/BAMS-86-4-504
Ellefsen, 1990/91, Mapping and measuring buildings in the urban canopy boundary layer in ten US cities, Energ. Buildings, 15–16, 1025
Gallo, 1993, The use of NOAA AVHRR data for assessment of the urban heat island effect, J. Appl. Meteor., 32, 899, 10.1175/1520-0450(1993)032<0899:TUONAD>2.0.CO;2
Grigg, 1965, The logic of regional systems, Ann. Assoc. Amer. Geogr., 55, 465, 10.1111/j.1467-8306.1965.tb00529.x
Grimmond, 1999, Aerodynamic properties of urban areas derived from analysis of surface form, J. Appl. Meteor., 38, 1262, 10.1175/1520-0450(1999)038<1262:APOUAD>2.0.CO;2
Gugler, J., Ed., 1996: The Urban Transformation of the Developing World.Oxford University Press, 327pp.
Hansen, 2001, A closer look at United States and global surface temperature change, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 23 947, 10.1029/2001JD000354
Häubi, 1980, Wechselwirkung zwischen der Siedlungsstruktur und Wärmeversorgungssystemen (Interaction between settlement structure and heating supply systems), 270
Homer, 2007, Completion of the 2001 national land cover database for the coterminous United States, Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens., 73, 337
Karl, 1988, Urbanization: Its detection and effect in the United States climate record, J. Climate, 1, 1099, 10.1175/1520-0442(1988)001<1099:UIDAEI>2.0.CO;2
Kljun, 2002, A three-dimensional backward Lagrangian footprint model for a wide range of boundary-layer stratifications, Bound.-Layer Meteor., 103, 205, 10.1023/A:1014556300021
Kostof, S., 1991: The City Shaped: Urban Patterns and Meanings through History.Thames and Hudson, 352pp.
Krayenhoff, 2009, Estimating thermal responsiveness of local-scale climate ‘zones’ with a numerical modeling approach, Extended Abstracts, Timothy R. Oke Symp./Eighth Symp. on Urban Environment., J12.5
Lin, 1994, Changing theoretical perspectives on urbanization in Asian developing countries, Third World Plann. Rev., 16, 1, 10.3828/twpr.16.1.4862425322u55h41
Lo, F., and Y.Yeung, Eds., 1998: Globalization and the World of Large Cities.United Nations University Press, 530pp.
Loridan, 2011, Characterization of energy f lux partitioning in urban environments: Links with surface seasonal properties, J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 51, 219, 10.1175/JAMC-D-11-038.1
Louw, 1965, Near-surface nocturnal winter temperatures in Pretoria, Notos, 14, 49
Lowry, 1977, Empirical estimation of the urban effects on climate: A problem analysis, J. Appl. Meteor., 16, 129, 10.1175/1520-0450(1977)016<0129:EEOUEO>2.0.CO;2
Lowry, W. P., and P. P.LowryII, 2001: The Biological Environment. Vol. 2, Fundamentals of Biometeorology: Interactions of Organisms and the Atmosphere.Peavine, 680pp.
Ludwig, 1970, Urban temperature fields, 80
Masson, 2000, A physically-based scheme for the urban energy budget in atmospheric models, Bound.-Layer Meteor., 94, 357, 10.1023/A:1002463829265
McGee, T., and I. M.Robinson, Eds., 1995: The Mega-Urban Regions of Southeast Asia.UBC Press, 384pp.
Mills, 2006, Progress toward sustainable settlements: A role for urban climatology, Theor. Appl. Climatol., 84, 69, 10.1007/s00704-005-0145-0
Mizuno, 1990/91, Effects of land use on urban horizontal atmospheric temperature distributions, Energ. Buildings, 15, 165, 10.1016/0378-7788(90)90128-6
Nunes da Silva, 2006, Temperature modifications in shantytown environments and thermal discomfort, Rev. Saude Publ., 40, 663
O'Connor, A., 1983: The African City.Hutchinson, 359pp.
Oke, 1982, The energetic basis of the urban heat island, Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 108, 1
Oke, 1984, Towards a prescription for the greater use of climatic principles in settlement planning, Energy Build., 7, 1, 10.1016/0378-7788(84)90040-9
Oke, T. R., 1987: Boundary Layer Climates.2nd ed. Routledge, 435pp.
Oke, 2004, Initial guidance to obtain representative meteorological observations at urban sites, 47
Oke, 2006, Towards better communication in urban climate, Theor. Appl. Climatol., 84, 179, 10.1007/s00704-005-0153-0
Oke, 2008, Urban observations. Guide to meteorological instruments and methods of observation, Part II of Observing Systems, II-11-1
Okoola, 1980, The Nairobi heat island, Kenya J. Sci. Technol., 1A, 53
Peterson, 2003, Assessment of urban versus rural in situ surface temperatures in the contiguous United States: No difference found, J. Climate, 16, 2941, 10.1175/1520-0442(2003)016<2941:AOUVRI>2.0.CO;2
Potter, R. B., and S.Lloyd-Evans, 1998: The City in the Developing World.Longman, 244pp.
Robaa, 2003, Urban-suburban/rural differences over Greater Cairo, Egypt, Atmosfera, 16, 157
Runnalls, 2006, A technique to detect microclimate inhomogeneities in historical records of screen-level air temperature, J. Climate, 19, 959, 10.1175/JCLI3663.1
Sakakibara, 2005, Relation between heat island intensity and city size indices/urban canopy characteristics in settlements of Nagano basin, Japan, Geogr. Rev. Japan, 78, 812, 10.4157/grj.78.812
Scherer, 1999, Improved concepts and methods in analysis and evaluation of the urban climate for optimizing urban climate processes, Atmos. Environ., 33, 4185, 10.1016/S1352-2310(99)00161-2
Schmid, 2002, Footprint modeling for vegetation atmosphere exchange studies: A review and perspective, Agric. For. Meteor., 113, 159, 10.1016/S0168-1923(02)00107-7
Sharon, 1972, Observations of the heat island of a small town, Meteor. Rundsch., 25, 143
Shitara, 1957, Effects of buildings upon the winter temperature in Hiroshima city (in Japanese), Geogr. Rev. Japan, 30, 468, 10.4157/grj.30.468
Stewart, 2011, Redefining the urban heat island, 352
Stewart, 2011, A systematic review and scientific critique of methodology in modern urban heat island literature, Int. J. Climatol., 31, 200, 10.1002/joc.2141
Stewart, 2006, Methodological concerns surrounding the classification of urban and rural climate stations to define urban heat island magnitude, Proc. Sixth Int. Conf. on Urban Climate., 431
Stewart, Classifying urban climate field sites by local climate zones: The case of Nagano, Japan
Stewart, 2010, Thermal differentiation of local climate zones using temperature observations from urban and rural field sites, Extended Abstracts, Ninth Symp. on Urban Environment, 1.1
Sundborg, 1951, Climatological studies in Uppsala with special regard to the temperature conditions in the urban area, 111
Taesler, 1980, Studies of the development and thermal structure of the urban boundary layer in Uppsala, 221
Tanner, C. B., 1963: Basic Instrumentation and Measurements for Plant Environment and Micrometeorology. Vol. 6, Soils Bulletin, University of Wisconsin Soil Science Dept., 200pp.
Theurer, 1999, Typical building arrangement for urban air pollution modelling, Atmos. Environ., 33, 4057, 10.1016/S1352-2310(99)00147-8
Vance, J. E., Jr., 1990: The Continuous City: Urban Morphology in Western Civilization.John Hopkins University Press, 552pp.
Wieringa, 1993, Representative roughness parameters for homogeneous terrain, Bound.-Layer Meteor, 63, 323, 10.1007/BF00705357
Wilmers, 1991, Effects of vegetation on urban climate and buildings, Energ. Build., 15–16, 507
WMO, 2008: Guide to Meteorological Instruments and Methods of Observation.7th ed., WMO-No. 8.