Levels of processing: A framework for memory research

Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior - Tập 11 Số 6 - Trang 671-684 - 1972
Fergus I. M. Craik1, Robert S. Lockhart1
1University of Toronto, Toronto 181, Ontario, Canada

Tóm tắt

Từ khóa


Tài liệu tham khảo

Atkinson, 1968, Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes, Vol. II, 89

Atkinson, 1971, The control of short-term memory, Scientific American, 224, 82, 10.1038/scientificamerican0871-82

Baddeley, 1966, Short-term memory for word sequences as a function of acoustic, semantic, and formal similarity, Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18, 362, 10.1080/14640746608400055

Baddeley, 1968, How does acoustic similarity influence short-term memory?, Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 20, 249, 10.1080/14640746808400159

Baddeley, 1970, Estimating the short-term component in free recall, British Journal of Psychology, 61, 13, 10.1111/j.2044-8295.1970.tb02796.x

Bobrow, 1969, Comprehension and recall of sentences, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 80, 455, 10.1037/h0027461

Bower, 1967, A multicomponent theory of the memory trace, Vol. 1, 230

Broadbent, 1958

Broadbent, 1971

Bruce, 1970, Primacy effect in single-trial free recall, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 9, 473, 10.1016/S0022-5371(70)80090-1

Cermak, 1972

Conrad, 1964, Acoustic confusions in immediate memory, British Journal of Psychology, 55, 75, 10.1111/j.2044-8295.1964.tb00899.x

Cooper, 1967, The total-time hypothesis in verbal learning, Psychological Bulletin, 68, 221, 10.1037/h0025052

Craik, 1970, The fate of primary memory items in free recall, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 9, 143, 10.1016/S0022-5371(70)80042-1

Craik, 1972, A ‘levels of analysis’ view of memory

Craik, 1970, Semantic and acoustic information in primary memory, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 86, 77, 10.1037/h0029799

Craik, 1969, Age and intelligence differences in coding and retrieval of word lists, British Journal of Psychology, 60, 315, 10.1111/j.2044-8295.1969.tb01202.x

Crannell, 1957, A comparison of immediate memory span for digits, letters, and words, Journal of Psychology, 44, 319, 10.1080/00223980.1957.9713089

Crowder, 1969, Precategorical acoustic storage, Perception and Psychophysics, 5, 365, 10.3758/BF03210660

Dornbush, 1967, Short-term intentional and incidental learning, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 73, 608, 10.1037/h0024335

Eagle, 1964, Recall and recognition in intentional and incidental learning, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 68, 58, 10.1037/h0044655

Eagle, 1967, The effect of level of attention upon “phonetic” recognition errors, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 6, 226, 10.1016/S0022-5371(67)80101-4

Estes, 1967, Independent variation of information storage and retrieval processes in paired-associate learning, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 75, 18, 10.1037/h0024902

Glanzer, 1972, Storage mechanisms in recall, Vol. 5, 129

Glanzer, 1966, Two storage mechanisms in free recall, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 5, 351, 10.1016/S0022-5371(66)80044-0

Glanzer, 1967, The effects of intralist activity on free recall, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 6, 928, 10.1016/S0022-5371(67)80161-0

Glucksberg, 1970, Memory for nonattended auditory material, Cognitive Psychology, 1, 149, 10.1016/0010-0285(70)90010-1

Haber, 1970, How we remember what we see, Scientific American, 222, 104, 10.1038/scientificamerican0570-104

Hyde, 1969, The differential effects of incidental tasks on the organization of recall of a list of highly associated words, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 82, 472, 10.1037/h0028372

Jacoby, 1972, Encoding processes and the negative recency effect, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 561, 10.1016/S0022-5371(72)80039-2

James, 1890

Johnston, 1971, Two more incidental tasks that differentially affect associative clustering in recall, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 89, 92, 10.1037/h0031184

Kintsch, 1970

Kintsch, 1969, Homophones and synonyms in short-term memory, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 80, 403, 10.1037/h0027477

Kroll, 1970, Short-term memory while shadowing. Recall of visually and aurally presented letters, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 85, 220, 10.1037/h0029544

Levy, 1971, Role of articulation in auditory and visual short-term memory, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 10, 123, 10.1016/S0022-5371(71)80003-8

Macnamara, 1972, Cognitive basis of language learning in infants, Psychological Review, 79, 1, 10.1037/h0031901

Madigan, 1969, Intraserial repetition and coding processes in free recall, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 8, 828, 10.1016/S0022-5371(69)80050-2

Mandler, 1967, Organization and Memory, Vol. 1, 328

Massaro, 1970, Perceptual processes and forgetting in memory tasks, Psychological Review, 77, 557, 10.1037/h0029984

Massaro, 1972, Preperceptual images, processing time, and perceptual units in auditory perception, Psychological Review, 79, 124, 10.1037/h0032264

McLaughlin, 1965, “Intentional” and “incidental” learning in human subjects: The role of instructions to learn and motivation, Psychological Bulletin, 63, 359, 10.1037/h0021759

Melton, 1963, Implications of short-term memory for a general theory of memory, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 2, 1, 10.1016/S0022-5371(63)80063-8

Melton, 1970, The situation with respect to the spacing of repetitions and memory, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 9, 596, 10.1016/S0022-5371(70)80107-4

Miller, 1956, The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information, Psychological Review, 63, 81, 10.1037/h0043158

Milner, 1970, Memory and the medial temporal regions of the brain, 29

Moray, 1959, Attention in dichotic listening: affective cues and the influence of instructions, Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 9, 56, 10.1080/17470215908416289

Moray, 1967, Where is capacity limited? A survey and a model

Morton, 1970, A functional model of memory, 203

Murdock, 1965, Effects of a subsidiary task on short-term memory, British Journal of Psychology, 56, 413, 10.1111/j.2044-8295.1965.tb00983.x

Murdock, 1966, Visual and auditory stores in short-term memory, Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18, 206, 10.1080/14640746608400031

Murdock, 1967, Recent developments in short-term memory, British Journal of Psychology, 58, 421, 10.1111/j.2044-8295.1967.tb01099.x

Murdock, 1971, Four channel effects in short-term memory, Psychonomic Science, 24, 197, 10.3758/BF03335566

Murdock, 1972, Short-term memory, Vol. 5, 67

Neisser, 1964, Visual search, Scientific American, 210, 94, 10.1038/scientificamerican0664-94

Neisser, 1967

Norman, 1969, Memory while shadowing, Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 21, 85, 10.1080/14640746908400200

Norman, 1970, A system for perception and memory, 21

Palmer, 1971, Role of rehearsal strategy in serial probed recall, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 88, 60, 10.1037/h0030658

Peterson, 1966, Short-term verbal memory and learning, Psychological Review, 73, 193, 10.1037/h0023229

Peterson, 1971, Some effects of minimizing articulation on short-term retention, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 10, 346, 10.1016/S0022-5371(71)80033-6

Peterson, 1964, Dichotic stimulation and retention, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 68, 125, 10.1037/h0039989

Phillips, 1971, Reaction time and short-term visual memory, Psychonomic Science, 22, 73, 10.3758/BF03332500

Posner, 1967, Short-term memory systems in human information processing, Acta Psychologica, 27, 267, 10.1016/0001-6918(67)90069-8

Posner, 1969, Abstraction and the process of recognition, Vol. III, 152

Postman, 1964, Short-term memory and incidental learning, 145

Rosenberg, 1971, Semantic coding and incidental sentence recall, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 90, 345, 10.1037/h0031559

Rundus, 1971, Analysis of rehearsal processes in free recall, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 89, 63, 10.1037/h0031185

Savin, 1970, The nonperceptual reality of the phoneme, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 9, 295, 10.1016/S0022-5371(70)80064-0

Schulman, 1971, Recognition memory for targets from a scanned word list, British Journal of Psychology, 62, 335, 10.1111/j.2044-8295.1971.tb02044.x

Selfridge, 1960, Pattern recognition by machine, Scientific American, 203, 60, 10.1038/scientificamerican0860-60

Shaffer, 1972, Rehearsal and storage of visual information, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 92, 292, 10.1037/h0032076

Shallice, 1970, Independent functioning of verbal memory stores: A neuropsychological study, Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 22, 261, 10.1080/00335557043000203

Shepard, 1967, Recognition memory for words, sentences, and pictures, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 6, 156, 10.1016/S0022-5371(67)80067-7

Shiffrin, 1967, Storage and retrieval processes in long-term memory, Psychological Review, 76, 179, 10.1037/h0027277

Shulman, 1970, Encoding and retention of semantic and phonemic information in short-term memory, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 9, 499, 10.1016/S0022-5371(70)80093-7

Shulman, 1971, Similarity effects in short-term memory, Psychological Bulletin, 75, 399, 10.1037/h0031257

Shulman, 1972, Semantic confusion errors in short-term memory, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 221, 10.1016/S0022-5371(72)80080-X

Silverstein, 1971, Concurrent task in free recall: Differential effects of LTS and STS, Psychonomic Science, 22, 367, 10.3758/BF03332624

Sperling, 1970, Short-term memory, long-term memory, and scanning in the processing of visual information, 198

Stoff, 1971, The relationship among reported strategies, presentation rate, and verbal ability and their effects on free recall learning, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 87, 423, 10.1037/h0030541

Sutherland, 1968, Outlines of a theory of visual pattern recognition in animals and man, Proceedings of the Royal Society. Series B, 171, 297, 10.1098/rspb.1968.0072

Treisman, 1964, Monitoring and storage of irrelevant messages in selective attention, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 3, 449, 10.1016/S0022-5371(64)80015-3

Tresselt, 1960, A study of incidental learning, Journal of Psychology, 50, 339, 10.1080/00223980.1960.9916451

Tulving, 1966, Subjective organization and effects of repetition in multi-trial free-recall learning, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 5, 193, 10.1016/S0022-5371(66)80016-6

Tulving, 1970, Memory and verbal learning, Annual Review of Psychology, 21, 437, 10.1146/annurev.ps.21.020170.002253

Tulving, 1968, Functional units and retrieval processes in free recall, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 77, 239, 10.1037/h0025788

Tulving, 1966, Availability versus accessibility of information in memory for words, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 5, 381, 10.1016/S0022-5371(66)80048-8

Turvey, 1967, Repetition and the preperceptual information store, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74, 289, 10.1037/h0024593

Warrington, 1971, Neurological disorders of memory, British Medical Bulletin, 27, 243, 10.1093/oxfordjournals.bmb.a070861

Watkins, 1972

Waugh, 1965, Primary memory, Psychological Review, 72, 89, 10.1037/h0021797

Wicker, 1969, Association value and orienting task in incidental and intentional paired-associate learning, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 81, 308, 10.1037/h0027763