Lead-free Solders in Microelectronics

H.H. Manko, Solder and Soldering, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1979.

ASM International, Electronic Materials Handbook, Vol. 1, Packaging, Materials Park, OH, 1989, p. 55.

T.P. Vianco, Development of alternatives to lead-bearing solders, in: Proceedings of the Technical Program on Surface Mount International, 19 August–2 September 1993, San Jose, CA.

R.E. Reed-Hill, Physical Metallurgy Principles, PWS Publishing Company, Massachusetts, 1994, pp. 306–307.

K.J.R. Wassink, M.M.F. Verguld, Manufacturing Techniques for Surface Mounted Assemblies, Electrochemical Publications Ltd., 1995, GB-Port Erin, British Isles, p. 17.

Wood, 1994, In search of new lead-free electronic solders, J. Electron. Mater., 23, 709, 10.1007/BF02651363

E.R. Monsalve, Lead ingestion hazard in hand soldering environments, in: Proceedings of the 8th Annual Soldering Technology and Product Assurance Seminar, February 1984, Naval Weapons Center, China Lake, CA.

D. Napp, Lead-free interconnect materials for the electronics industry, in: Proceedings of the 27th International SAMPE Technical Conference, Albuquerque, NM, 9–12 October 1995, p. 342.

Allenby, 1993, An assessment of the use of lead in electronics assembly, Circuit World, 19, 1

J.O. Nriagu, J.M. Pacyna, Quantitative assessment of worldwide contamination of air, water and soils by trace metals, Nature 333 (6169) (1988) 134–139.

Environmental Protection Agency, National Air Quality and Emission Trend Report, 1989, EPA-450/4-91-003, Research Triangle Park, NC, 1991.

Jin, 1994, Foreword, J. Electron. Mater., 23, 709

D. Napp, Lead-free interconnect materials for the electronics industry, in: Proceedings of the 27th International SAMPE Technical Conference, Albuquerque, NM, 9–12 October 1995, p. 343.

E. Perrot, Electronic Packaging for the 21st Century, Advanced Packaging, July–August 1995.

Glazer, 1994, Microstructure and mechanical properties of Pb-free solder alloys for low cost electronic assembly: a review, J. Electron. Mater., 23, 693, 10.1007/BF02651361

R. Wyckoff, World Class Outsourcing for Electronic Manufacturing, Technology Forecasters Inc., Berkeley, CA, 1998.

Key, 1986, Metals demand in telecommunication, Mater. Soc., 10, 433

ASM International, Electronic Material Handbook, Vol. 1, Materials Park, OH, 1989, pp. 965–966.

D. Napp, Lead-free interconnect materials for the electronics industry, in: Proceedings of the 27th International SAMPE Technical Conference, Albuquerque, NM, 9–12 October 1995, pp. 334–337.

IPC adopts lead-free position, Surf. Mount Technol. 13 (6) (1999) 64.

Industry Aids Environment, Japan Times, 14 October 1999, p. 10.

R.D. Brown, Jr., Indium in Commodity Data Summaries, U.S. Geological Survey, January 1999, p. 84.

R.D. Brown, Jr., Indium in Commodity Data Summaries, U.S. Geological Survey-Minerals Information, 1997.

Glazer, 1995, Metallurgy of low temperature Pb-free solders for electronic assembly, Int. Mater. Rev., 40, 67, 10.1179/imr.1995.40.2.65

C. Lea, A Scientific Guide to Surface Mount Technology, Electrochemical Publications Ltd., 1988, GB-Port Erin, British Isles, pp. 378–379.

W.R. Lewis, Notes on Soldering, Tin Research Institute, 1961, p. 66.

ASM International, Electronic Material Handbook, Vol. 1, Materials Park, OH, 1989, pp. 1161–1162.

McCormack, 1994, Improved mechanical properties in new, Pb-free solder alloys, J. Electron. Mater., 23, 715, 10.1007/BF02651364

J.W. Morris, Jr., J.L.F. Goldstein, Z. Mei, Microstructure and mechanical properties of Sn–In and Sn–Bi solders, J. Electron. Mater. July (1993) 25–27.

Kabassis, 1986, Phase relationships in Bi–In–Sn alloy systems, Mater. Sci. Technol., 2, 985, 10.1179/mst.1986.2.10.985

Croker, 1973, The characterization of eutectic structure, Proc. R. Soc., London, Ser. A., 335, 15, 10.1098/rspa.1973.0111

R.W. Wild, Properties of Some Low Melting Fusible Alloys, Technical Report, IBM Federal Systems Division Laboratory, New York, 1971.

McCormack, 1993, New Pb-free solder alloy with superior mechanical properties, Appl. Phys. Lett., 63, 15, 10.1063/1.109734

M. McCormack, S. Jin, G.W. Kammlott, The design of new Pb-free solder alloys with improved properties, IEEE 0-7803-2137-5/95, 1995.

Mei, 1992, Superplastic creep of low melting point solder joints, J. Electron. Mater., 21, 401, 10.1007/BF02660403

Freer, 1992, Microstructure and creep of indium/tin on Cu and Ni substrates, J. Electron. Mater., 21, 647, 10.1007/BF02655434

J. Seyyedi, Thermal fatigue behavior of low melting point solder joints, Soldering Surf. Mount Technol. (13) (1993) 26–32.

Glazer, 1995, Metallurgy of low temperature Pb-free solders for electronic assembly, Int. Mater. Rev., 40, 65, 10.1179/imr.1995.40.2.65

F. Hua, J. Glazer, Lead-free solders for electronic assembly, design and reliability of solders and solder interconnections, in: R.K. Mahidhara, D.R. Frear, S.M.L. Sastry, K.L. Liaw, W.L. Winterbottom (Eds.), The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society, 1997, pp. 65–74.

McCormack, 1996, Wave soldering with a low melting point Bi–Sn alloy: effects of soldering temperatures and circuit board finishes, J. Electron. Mater., 25, 1128, 10.1007/BF02659914

Loomans, 1994, Investigation of multi-component lead-free solders, J. Electron. Mater., 23, 741, 10.1007/BF02651368

Seelig, 1995, A study of lead-free solder alloys, Circuits Assembly, 6, 46

I. Artaki, D.W. Finley, A.M. Jackson, U. Ray, P.T. Vianco, Wave soldering with lead-free solders, in: Proceedings of the Technical Program on Advanced Electronics Manufacturing Technologies, August 1995, SMI Surface Mount International, San Jose, CA, pp. 495–510.

Lee, 1995, A novel lead-free solder replacement, Circuits Assembly, 6, 36

A.M Jackson, P.T. Vianco, I. Artaki, Manufacturing feasibility of several lead-free solders for electronic assembly, in: Proceedings of the 7th International SAMPE Electronics Conference, 20–23 June 1994, Parsippany, NJ, pp. 381–391.

McCormack, 1993, Progress in the design of new lead-free solder alloys, JOM, 45, 36, 10.1007/BF03222379

Miller, 1994, A viable tin–lead solder substitute: Sn–Ag–Cu, J. Electron. Mater., 23, 595, 10.1007/BF02653344

Kwoka, 1995, A comparison of lead-free vs. eutectic solders, Circuits Assembly, 6, 32

P.T. Vianco, F.M. Hosking, J.A. Rejent, Wettability analysis of tin-based, lead-free solders, in: Proceedings of the Technical Program — National Electronic Packaging and Production Conference, Vol. 3, Published by Cahner Exposition Group, 1992, Anaheim, CA, pp. 1730–1738.

D.B. Knorr, L.E. Felton, Designing lead-free solder alloys for advanced electronics assembly, in: Proceedings of the 1994 Design for Manufacturability Conference, ASME N.Y., New York, pp. 27–34.

McCormack, 1994, New lead-free, Sn–Zn–In solder alloys, J. Electron. Mater., 23, 687, 10.1007/BF02653357

M. Hansen, K. Anderko, Constitution of Binary Alloys, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1958.

R.J.K. Wassink, Soldering in Electronics, 2nd Edition, Electrochemical Publications Ltd., 1989, GB-Port Erin, British Isles, pp. 36–37.

F.H. Howie, C. Lea, Blowholing in PTH solder fillets — towards a solution, in: Proceedings of INTERNEPCON UK, Brighton, 1984, pp. 104–111.

Goldman, 1976, Measurement of solder-flux-vapor surface tension by a modified maximum bubble pressure technique, Rev. Sci. Instr., 47, 324, 10.1063/1.1134615

Deighan, 1982, Surface tension of solder alloys, Int. J. Hybrid Electron., 5, 307

M.A. Carroll, M.E. Warwick, Surface tension of some Sn–Pb alloys: Part I. Effect of Bi, Sb, P, Ag and Cu on 60Sn–40Pb solder, Mater. Sci. Technol. 3 (12) (1986) 1040–1045.

Vincent, 1993, Alternative solders for electronics assemblies, Circuit World, 19, 33, 10.1108/eb046210

K. Tojima, Wetting Characteristics of Lead-free Solders, Senior Project Report, Materials Engineering Department, San Jose State University, May 1999.

L.E. Felton, C.H. Raeder, C.K. Havasy, D.B. Knorr, Pb-free soldering alternatives for fine pitched electronics packaging, in: Proceedings of the 13th IEEE/CHMT International Symposium on Electronics Manufacturing Technology, Materials Engineering Department, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, pp. 300–304.

Tsung-Yu Pan, J. Nicholson, H. Blair, R. Poulson, R. Cooper, D. Mitlin, M.F. Cheung, Dynamic wetting characteristics of some lead-free solders, in: Proceedings of the 7th International SAMPE Electronics Conference, 20–23 June 1994, Ford Research Laboratory, Ford Motor Company.

Vianco, 1993, Issues in the replacement of lead-bearing solders, JOM, 45, 14, 10.1007/BF03222374

Artaki, 1994, Evaluation of lead-free joints in electronic assemblies, J. Electron. Mater., 23, 757, 10.1007/BF02651370

P.T. Vianco, C. May, An evaluation of prototype surface mount circuit boards assembled with three non-lead bearing solders, in: Proceedings of the Technical Program on Advanced Electronics Manufacturing Technologies, SMI Surface Mount International, San Jose, CA, 1995, pp. 481–494.

J. Collazo, Effect of Surface Stresses on Wetting of Copper by Solder, Senior Project Report, Department of Materials Engineering, San Jose State University, May 1997.

Romm, 1998, Lead-free solder joint evaluation, Surf. Mount Technol., 12, 84

Tu, 1996, Interdiffusion and reaction in bimetallic Cu–Sn thin films, Mat. Chem. and Physics, 46, 217, 10.1016/S0254-0584(97)80016-8

Inaba, 1984, Effects of Fe, Ni, and Sn on reaction diffusion at solder/Cu base alloy interface, J. Jpn. Instit. Metals, 48, 863, 10.2320/jinstmet1952.48.9_863

P.J. Kay, C.A. Mackay, The growth of intermetallic compounds on common base materials coated with tin and tin–lead alloys, Trans. Instit. Metal Finish. 54 (1976).

Dunn, 1985, Dependence of Cu/Sn and Cu/60Sn40Pb solder joint strength on diffusion controlled growth of Cu3Sn and Cu6Sn5, Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc., 40, 129, 10.1557/PROC-40-129

M. Hansen, K. Anderko, Constitution of Binary Alloys, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1958, p. 1218.

ASM International, ASM Handbook, Vol. 3, Alloy Phase Diagrams, 1992.

C.J. Thwaites, Soft Soldering Handbook, International Tin Research Institute, Publication No. 533, 1977.

Y. Yamagishi, M. Ochiai, H. Ueda, T. Nakanishi, M. Kitazima, Pb-free solder of Sn–58Bi improved with Ag, in: Proceedings of the 9th International Microelectronics Conference, 24–26 April 1996, Omiya, Japan, pp. 252–255.

L.H. Van Vlack, Materials Science for Engineers, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1970, p. 192.

ASM International, Electronic Materials Handbook, Vol. 1, Packaging, Materials Park, OH, 1989, p. 640.

Solder alloy data: mechanical properties of solders and soldered joints, International Tin Research Institute, Uxbridge, England, p. 60.

Tomlinson, 1987, The mechanical properties and microstructures of copper and brass joints soldered with eutectic tin–bismuth solder, J. Mater. Sci., 22, 1835, 10.1007/BF01132413

J.S. Hwang, Solder Paste in Electronic Packaging, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1989.

Frear, 1996, The mechanical behavior of interconnect materials for electronic packaging, J. Mater., 48, 49

C. Lea, A Scientific Guide to Surface Mount Technology, Electrochemical Publications Ltd., GB-Port Erin, British Isles, 1988.

Darveaux, 1992, Constitutive relations for tin-based solder joints, IEEE transactions on components, Hybrids Manufacturing, 15, 1014

D.R. Frear, W.B. Jones, K.R. Kinsman, Solder Mechanics: A State of the Art Assessment, TMS Publications, Warrendale, PA, 1991.

R. Strauss, S. Smernos, Low Temperature Soldering, The Bulletin of the Bismuth Institute, No. 49, 1986.

Marshall, 1987, Int. J. Hybrid Microelectron., 10, 11

ASM International, Electronic Materials Handbook, Vol. 1, Packaging, Materials Park, OH, 1989, p. 58.

M. Abtew, Corrosion of Indium Based Solders Induced by Flux Residue and Ionic Contamination, Amdahl Corporation, Technical Bulletin, 1993.

J.R. Lloyd, C. Zhang, Leong H. Tan, D. Shangguan, A. Achari, Measurements of thermal conductivity and specific heat of lead-free solder, in: Proceedings of the IEEE/CPMT International Symposium on Electronic Manufacturing Technology, Omiya, Japan, 1995, pp. 252–262.

R.P. Elliot, Constitution of Binary Alloys, Suppl. 1, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1965.

F.A. Shunk, Constitution of Binary Alloys, Suppl. 2, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1969.

Jones, D.A., Principles and Prevention of Corrosion, Macmillan, New York, 1992, p. 43.

W.F. Smith, Principles of Materials Science and Engineering, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1990, p. 724.

J.F. Kuhmann, A. Preuss, B. Adolphi, K. Maly, T. Wirth, W. Oersterle, W. Pittroff, G. Weyer, M. Fanciulli, Oxidation and reduction kinetics of eutectic SnPb, InSn and AuSn: a knowledge base for fluxless solder bonding applications, in: Proceedings of Electronic Components and Techmology Conference, IEEE, 1997, San Jose, CA, pp. 120–126.

N.I. Sax, R.J. Lewis, Sr., Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 7th Edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1989, p. 2067.

N.I. Sax, R.J. Lewis, Sr., Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 7th Edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1989, p. 1985.

N.I. Sax, R.J. Lewis, Sr., Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 7th Edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1989, p. 277.

N.I. Sax, R.J. Lewis, Sr., Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 7th Edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1989, p. 522.

Witt, 1996, The trek towards lead-free solders, Surf. Mount Technol., 10, 70

Bastecki, 1997, Lead-free assembly of mixed-technology PCB’s, Surf. Mount Technol., 11, 52