Knowing your audience: How the structure of international relations and organizational choices affect amnesty international’s advocacy

The Review of International Organizations - Tập 9 - Trang 29-58 - 2013
Cullen S. Hendrix1, Wendy H. Wong2
1Josef Korbel School of International Studies, University of Denver, Denver, USA
2Department of Political Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada

Tóm tắt

While research has addressed the effects of international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs) advocacy on human rights outcomes, less is known about how INGOs choose advocacy targets and tactics. We combine insights from political economy and constructivism to understand how INGOs come to choose targets and tactics through the concepts of information and leverage politics, first articulated by Keck and Sikkink (1998), and salience politics, or the need to select cases that energize organization members and donors. INGOs select potential targets for advocacy and choose their tactics based on considerations of leverage potential and political salience, both of which are a function of potential target states’ aid, trade, and security linkages with major Western powers. Using data on Amnesty International’s written advocacy efforts - background reports, press releases, and new data on Urgent Actions - we find robust evidence that Amnesty International accounts for these linkages with Western powers in choosing targets for its advocacy campaigns.

Tài liệu tham khảo

Aldrich, H. E. (1979). Organizations and their Environments. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Ali, M. M., & Shah, I. H. (2000). Sanctions and childhood mortality in Iraq. The Lancet, 355(9218), 1851–1857. Ascherio, A., Chase, R., Coté, T., Dehaes, G., Hoskins, E., Laaouej, J., Passey, M., Qaderi, S., Shuqaidef, S., Smith, M. C., & Zaidi, S. (1992). Effect of the Gulf War on Infant and Child Mortality in Iraq. New England Journal of Medicine, 327, 931–936. Ayres, J. M. (1998). Defying Conventional Wisdom: Political Movements and Popular Contention against North American Free Trade. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Barbieri, K., Keshk, O. M. G., & Pollins, B. M. (2009). Trading Data: Evaluating our Assumptions and Coding Rules. Conflict Management and Peace Science, 26(5), 471–491. Barnett, M. (2005). Humanitarianism Transformed. Perspectives on Politics, 3(4), 723–740. Barnett, M. (2009). Evolution Without Progress? Humanitarianism in a World of Hurt. International Organization, 63(4), 621–663. Barnett, M., & Finnemore, M. (2004). Rules For The World: International Organizations In Global Politics. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Bell, S., Clay, K. C., & Murdie, A. (2012). Neighborhood Watch: Spatial Effects of Human Rights INGOs. Journal of Politics, 74(2), 354–368. Bloodgood, E. A. (2010). The Interest Group Analogy: International Non-governmental Advocacy Organizations in International Politics. Review of International Studies, 36(1), 1–28. Bob, C. (2012). The Global Right Wing and the Clash of World Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press. Cao, X., & Prakash, A. (2012). Trade Competition and Environmental Regulations: Domestic Political Constraints and Issue Visibility. The Journal of Politics, 74(1), 66–82. Carey, S. C. (2007). European Aid: Human Rights Versus Bureaucratic Inertia? Journal of Peace Research, 44(4), 447–464. Carleton, D., & Stohl, M. (1985). The Foreign Policy of Human Rights: Rhetoric and Reality from Jimmy Carter to Ronald Reagan. Human Rights Quarterly, 7(2), 205–229. Chandhoke, N. (2007). Thinking Through Social and Economic Rights. In D. A. Bell & J.-M. Coicaud (Eds.), Ethics in Action: The Ethical Challenges of International Human Rights Nongovernmental Organizations (pp. 181–197). New York: Cambridge University Press. Cingranelli, D. L., & Richards, D. L. (2010). The Cingranelli and Richards (CIRI) Human Rights Data Project. Human Rights Quarterly, 32(2), 401–424. Clark, A. M. (2001). Diplomacy of Conscience: Amnesty International and Changing Human Rights Norms. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Clark, A. M., Friedman, E. J., & Hochstetler, K. (1998). The Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society: A Comparison of INGO Participation in UN World Conferences on the Environment, Human Rights, and Women. World Politics, 51(1), 1–35. Cooley, A., & Ron, J. (2002). The INGO Scramble: Organizational Insecurity and the Political Economy of Transnational Action. International Security, 27(1), 5–39. Cortright, D., & Lopez, G. A. (2000). The Sanctions Decade: Assessing UN Strategies in the 1990s. Boulder, CO: Lynne Reiner Publishers. Findley, Michael G., Darren Hawkins, Robert L. Hicks, Daniel L. Nielson, Bradley C. Parks, Ryan M. Powers, J. Timmons Roberts, Michael J. Tierney, and Sven Wilson. 2009. “AidData: Tracking Development Finance.” Presented at the PLAID Data Vetting Workshop, Washington, DC. Frankel, J. A., & Romer, D. (1999). Does Trade Cause Growth? American Economic Review, 89(3), 379–399. Franklin, J. (2008). Shame on You: The Impact of Human Rights Criticism on Political Repression in Latin America. International Studies Quarterly, 52(1), 187–211. Garfield, R., Devin, J., & Fausey, J. (1995). The Health Impact of Economic Sanctions. Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 72(2), 454–469. Ghosn, F., Palmer, G., & Bremer, S. (2004). The MID3 Data Set, 1993–2001: Procedures, Coding Rules, and Description. Conflict Management and Peace Science, 21(2), 133–154. Gleditsch, K. S. (2002). Expanded Trade and GDP Data. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 46(5), 712–724. Gleditsch, K. S., & Ward, M. D. (2001). Measuring Space: A Minimum Distance Database and Applications to International Studies. Journal of Peace Research, 38(6), 739–758. Goering, C. (2007). Amnesty International and Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights. In D. A. Bell & J.-M. Coicaud (Eds.), Ethics in Action: The Ethical Challenges of International Human Rights Nongovernmental Organizations (pp. 204–217). New York: Cambridge University Press. Gourevitch, P., & Lake, D. A. (2012). Beyond Virtue: Evaluating and Enhancing the Credibility of Non-Governmental Organizations. In P. Gourevitch, D. A. Lake, & G. Stein (Eds.), Beyond Virtue: Evaluating the Credibility of Non-Governmental Organizations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Grimmett, R. F. (2010). CRS Reports for Congress: Conventional Arms Transfers to Developing Nations, 2002–2009. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service. Hafner-Burton, E. M. (2005). Trading Human Rights: How Preferential Trade Agreements Influence Government Repression. International Organization, 59(3), 593–629. Hafner-Burton, E. M. (2008). Sticks and Stones: Naming and Shaming the Human Rights Enforcement Problem. International Organization, 62(4), 689–716. Hafner-Burton, Emilie M. and James Ron. 2012. The Latin Bias: Regions, Human Rights, and the Western Media. International Studies Quarterly. Hendrix, C. S., & Wong, W. H. (2013). When is the Pen Truly Mighty? Regime Type and the Efficacy of Naming and Shaming in Curbing Human Rights Abuses. British Journal of Political Science, 43(3), 651–672. Hill, D. W., Jr., Moore, W. H., & Mukherjee, B. (2013). Information Politics v. Organizational Incentives: Why are Amnesty International’s ‘Naming and Shaming’ Reports Biased? International Studies Quarterly, 57(2), 219–232. Hopgood, S. (2006). Keepers of the Flame: Understanding Amnesty International. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Johnson, E., & Prakash, A. (2007). NGO Research Program: A Collective Action Perspective. Policy Sciences, 40(3), 221–240. Keck, M. E., & Sikkink, K. (1998). Activists Beyond Borders. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Keele, L., & Kelly, N. J. (2006). Dynamic Models for Dynamic Theories: The Ins and Outs of Lagged Dependent Variables. Political Analysis, 14(2), 186–205. Krain, M. (2012). J’accuse! Does naming and shaming perpetrators reduce the severity of genocides or politicides? International Studies Quarterly, 56(3), 574–589. Lacina, B. (2004). From side show to centre stage: Civil conflict after the cold war. Security Dialogue, 35(2), 191–205. Lacy, D., & Niou, E. M. S. (2004). A Theory of Economic Sanctions and Issue Linkage: The Roles of Preferences, Information, and Threats. The Journal of Politics, 66(1), 25–42. Lake, D. A., & Wong, W. H. (2009). “The Politics of Networks: Interests, Power, and Human Rights Norms”. In Networked Politics: Agency, Power, and Governance, ed. Miles Kahler. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Lewis, K. K. (1999). Trying to Explain Home Bias in Equities and Consumption. Journal of Economic Literature, 37(2), 571–608. Lopez, G. A., & Cortright, D. (1997). Economic Sanctions and Human Rights: Part of the Problem or Part of the Solution? International Journal of Human Rights, 1(2), 1–25. Mani, A., & Mukand, S. (2007). Democracy, Visibility and Public Good Provision. Journal of Development Economics, 83(2), 506–529. Marinov, N. (2005). Do Economic Sanctions Destabilize Country Leaders? American Journal of Political Science, 49(3), 564–576. Marshall, M. G., Gurr, T. R., & Jaggers, K. (2009). Polity IV Project: Political Regime Characteristics and Transitions, 1800–2009, Dataset Users’ Manual. College Park, MD: Center for Systemic Peace. Meernik, J., Alosi, R., Sowell, M., & Nichols, A. (2012). The Impact of Human Rights Organizations on Naming and Shaming Campaigns. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 56(2), 23–256. Murdie, A., & Davis, D. R. (2011). Looking in the Mirror: Comparing INGO Networks Across Issue Areas. Review of International Organizations, 7(2), 177–202. Murdie, Amanda. (Forthcoming). Scrambling for Contact: The Determinants of Inter-NGO Cooperation in Non-Western Countries. Review of International Organizations. Murdie, Amanda, and Johannes Urpelainen. (Forthcoming). “Why Pick on Us? Environmental INGOs and State Shaming as a Strategic Substitute.” Political Studies. Oestreich, J. E. (2007). Power and Principle: Human Rights Programming in International Organizations. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. Pape, R. A. (1997). Why Sanctions Do Not Work. International Security, 22(2), 90–136. Pape, R. A. (1998). Why Sanctions Still Do Not Work. International Security, 23(1), 66–77. Peksen, D. (2009). Better or Worse? The Effect of Economic Sanctions on Human Rights. Journal of Peace Research, 46(1), 59–77. Peksen, D., & Drury, A. C. (2010). Coercive or Corrosive: The Negative Impact of Economic Sanctions on Democracy. International Interactions, 36(3), 240–264. Poe, S. C. (1992). Human Rights and Economic Aid Allocation under Ronald Reagan and Jimmy Carter. American Journal of Political Science, 36(1), 147–162. Poe, S. C., & Tate, C. N. (1994). Repression of Human Rights to Personal Integrity in the 1980s: A Global Analysis. American Political Science Review, 88(4), 853–872. Poe, S. C., Carey, S. C., & Vasquez, T. C. (2001). How Are These Pictures Different? A Quantitative Comparison of the US State Department and Amnesty International Human Rights Reports, 1976–1995. Human Rights Quarterly, 23(3), 650–677. Prakash, A., & Gugerty, M. K. (Eds.). (2010). Advocacy Organizations and Collective Action. New York: Cambridge University Press. Ramos, H., Ron, J., & Thoms, O. N. T. (2007). Shaping the northern media’s human rights coverage, 1986–2000. Journal of Peace Research, 44(4), 385–406. Redfield, P. (2006). A Less Modest Witness: Collective Advocacy and Motivated Truth in a Medical Humanitarian Movement. American Ethnologist, 33(1), 3–26. Reimann, K. D. (2006). A View from the Top: International Politics, Norms, and the Worldwide Growth of INGOs. International Studies Quarterly, 50(1), 45–67. Rich, R. (2004). Applying Conditionality to Development Assistance. Agenda, 11(4), 321–334. Ron, J., Ramos, H., & Rodgers, K. (2005). Transnational Information Politics: INGO Human Rights Reporting, 1986–2000. International Studies Quarterly, 49(3), 557–588. Roth, K. (2004). Defending Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights: Practical Issues Faced by a Human Rights Organization. Human Rights Quarterly, 26(1), 63–73. Shawki, N. (2011). Organizational Structure and Strength and Transnational Campaign Outcomes: A Comparison of Two Transnational Advocacy Networks. Global Networks, 11(1), 97–117. Signorino, C. S., & Ritter, J. M. (1999). Tau-b or Not Tau-b: Measuring the Similarity of Foreign Policy Positions. International Studies Quarterly, 43(1), 115–144. Sikkink, K. (1993). Human rights, principled issue-networks, and sovereignty in Latin America. International Organization, 47(3), 411–441. Sikkink, K. (2004). Mixed signals: U.S. human rights policy and Latin America. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Stockholm Peace Research Institute. (2010). SIPRI Yearbook 2010. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Stroup, S. S. (2012). Borders Among Activists. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Stroup, S. S., & Murdie, A. (2012). There’s No Place like Home: Explaining International NGO Advocacy. Review of International Organizations, 7(4), 425–448. Thompson, A. (2008). Beyond Expression: Amnesty International’s Decision to Oppose Capital Punishment, 1973. Journal of Human Rights, 7(4), 327–340. Tsebelis, G. (1990). Are Sanctions Effective? A Game-Theoretic Analysis. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 34(1), 3–28. Vuong, Q. H. (1989). Likelihood Ratio Tests for Model Selection and Non-Nested Hypotheses. Econometrica, 57(2), 307–333. Weaver, C. (2008). Hypocrisy Trap: The World Bank and the Poverty of Reform. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Welch, C. E. (2001). Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch: A Comparison. In C. E. Welch (Ed.), INGOs and Human Rights: Promise and Performance. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Werker, E., & Ahmed, F. Z. (2008). What Do Nongovernmental Organizations Do? Journal of Economic Perspectives, 22(2), 73–92. Winston, M. E. (2001). Assessing the Effectiveness of International Human Rights INGOs: Amnesty International. In C. E. Welch (Ed.), INGOs and Human Rights: Promise and Performance. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Wong, W. H. (2012). Internal Affairs: How the Structure of NGOs Transforms Human Rights. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Wood, R. M., & Gibney, M. (2010). The Political Terror Scale (PTS): A Re-introduction and a Comparison to CIRI. Human Rights Quarterly, 32(2), 367–400. Wu, H. D. (2000). Systemic determinants of international news coverage: a comparison of 38 countries. Journal of Communication, 50(2), 110–130.