Intestinal fibrosis in inflammatory bowel disease — Current knowledge and future perspectives

Burke, 2007, Fibrogenesis in Crohn's disease, Am J Gastroenterol, 102, 439, 10.1111/j.1572-0241.2006.01010.x Van Assche, 2004, Medical therapy for Crohn's disease strictures, Inflamm Bowel Dis, 10, 55, 10.1097/00054725-200401000-00009 Longo, 2003, Patterns of disease and surgical treatment among United States veterans more than 50 years of age with ulcerative colitis, Am J Surg, 186, 514, 10.1016/j.amjsurg.2003.07.001 Prudhomme, 2003, Anal canal strictures after ileal pouch-anal anastomosis, Dis Colon Rectum, 46, 20, 10.1007/s10350-004-6491-7 Farmer, 1985, Long-term follow-up of patients with Crohn's disease. Relationship between the clinical pattern and prognosis, Gastroenterology, 88, 1818, 10.1016/0016-5085(85)90006-X Silverstein, 1999, Clinical course and costs of care for Crohn's disease: Markov model analysis of a population-based cohort, Gastroenterology, 117, 49, 10.1016/S0016-5085(99)70549-4 Rieder, 2007, Wound healing and fibrosis in intestinal disease, Gut, 56, 130, 10.1136/gut.2006.090456 Rutgeerts, 1990, Predictability of the postoperative course of Crohn's disease, Gastroenterology, 99, 956, 10.1016/0016-5085(90)90613-6 Dietz, 2001, Safety and longterm efficacy of strictureplasty in 314 patients with obstructing small bowel Crohn's disease, J Am Coll Surg, 192, 330, 10.1016/S1072-7515(01)00775-X Louis, 2001, Behaviour of Crohn's disease according to the Vienna classification: changing pattern over the course of the disease, Gut, 49, 777, 10.1136/gut.49.6.777 Cosnes, 2005, Impact of the increasing use of immunosuppressants in Crohn's disease on the need for intestinal surgery, Gut, 54, 237, 10.1136/gut.2004.045294 Korzenik, 2006, Evolving knowledge and therapy of inflammatory bowel disease, Nat Rev Drug Discov, 5, 197, 10.1038/nrd1986 Pucilowska, 2000, Fibrogenesis. IV. Fibrosis and inflammatory bowel disease: cellular mediators and animal models, Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol, 279, G653, 10.1152/ajpgi.2000.279.4.G653 Graham, 1995, Pathogenesis of intestinal strictures in Crohn's disease — an update, Inflamm Bowel Dis, 1, 220, 10.1097/00054725-199509000-00008 Legnani, 2002, Therapeutic options in the management of strictures in Crohn's disease, Gastrointest Endosc Clin N Am, 12, 589, 10.1016/S1052-5157(02)00015-6 Shen, 2004, Endoscopic balloon dilation of ileal pouch strictures, Am J Gastroenterol, 99, 2340, 10.1111/j.1572-0241.2004.40604.x Morini, 2001, Management of an ileocolic anastomotic stricture using polyvinyl over-the-guidewire dilators in Crohn's disease, Gastrointest Endosc, 53, 384 Brooker, 2003, Long-acting steroid injection after endoscopic dilation of anastomotic Crohn's strictures may improve the outcome: a retrospective case series, Endoscopy, 35, 333, 10.1055/s-2003-38145 Wynn, 2004, Fibrotic disease and the T(H)1/T(H)2 paradigm, Nat Rev Immunol, 4, 583, 10.1038/nri1412 Powell, 1999, Myofibroblasts. II. Intestinal subepithelial myofibroblasts, Am J Physiol, 277, C183, 10.1152/ajpcell.1999.277.2.C183 Hinz, 2007, The myofibroblast. One function, multiple origins, Am J Pathol Smith, 1997, Fibroblasts as sentinel cells. Synthesis of chemokines and regulation of inflammation, Am J Pathol, 151, 317 Chang, 2002, Diversity, topographic differentiation, and positional memory in human fibroblasts, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 99, 12877, 10.1073/pnas.162488599 Armaka, 2008, Mesenchymal cell targeting by TNF as a common pathogenic principle in chronic inflammatory joint and intestinal diseases, J Exp Med, 10.1084/jem.20070906 Lund, 2001, Intestinal fibrosis in human and experimental inflammatory bowel disease, Curr Opin Gastroenterol, 17, 318, 10.1097/00001574-200107000-00004 Lawrance, 2001, Altered response of intestinal mucosal fibroblasts to profibrogenic cytokines in inflammatory bowel disease, Inflamm Bowel Dis, 7, 226, 10.1097/00054725-200108000-00008 McKaig, 2002, Differential expression of TGF-beta isoforms by normal and inflammatory bowel disease intestinal myofibroblasts, Am J Physiol Cell Physiol, 282, C172, 10.1152/ajpcell.00048.2001 Simmons, 2002, IGF-I and TGF-beta1 have distinct effects on phenotype and proliferation of intestinal fibroblasts, Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol, 283, G809, 10.1152/ajpgi.00057.2002 Theiss, 2005, Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) alpha increases collagen accumulation and proliferation in intestinal myofibroblasts via TNF receptor 2, J Biol Chem, 280, 36099, 10.1074/jbc.M505291200 Jobson, 1998, Regulation of proliferation of human colonic subepithelial myofibroblasts by mediators important in intestinal inflammation, J Clin Invest, 101, 2650, 10.1172/JCI1876 Strutz, 2001, TGF-beta 1 induces proliferation in human renal fibroblasts via induction of basic fibroblast growth factor (FGF-2), Kidney Int, 59, 579, 10.1046/j.1523-1755.2001.059002579.x Zhao, 1996, Requirement of transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) type II receptor for TGF-beta-induced proliferation and growth inhibition, J Biol Chem, 271, 2369, 10.1074/jbc.271.5.2369 Berton, 2000, Activation of fibroblasts in collagen lattices by mast cell extract: a model of fibrosis, Clin Exp Allergy, 30, 485, 10.1046/j.1365-2222.2000.00737.x Gelbmann, 1999, Strictures in Crohn's disease are characterised by an accumulation of mast cells colocalised with laminin but not with fibronectin or vitronectin, Gut, 45, 210, 10.1136/gut.45.2.210 Xu, 2004, Mast cells and eosinophils have a potential profibrogenic role in Crohn disease, Scand J Gastroenterol, 39, 440, 10.1080/00365520310008566 Vogel, 2004, CD40-mediated immune-nonimmune cell interactions induce mucosal fibroblast chemokines leading to T-cell transmigration, Gastroenterology, 126, 63, 10.1053/j.gastro.2003.10.046 Musso, 1999, Regulation of ICAM-1-mediated fibroblast-T cell reciprocal interaction: implications for modulation of gut inflammation, Gastroenterology, 117, 546, 10.1016/S0016-5085(99)70447-6 Brown, 2007, Cytokines regulate matrix metalloproteinases and migration in cardiac fibroblasts, Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 362, 200, 10.1016/j.bbrc.2007.08.003 Sasaki, 2000, Differential regulation of metalloproteinase production, proliferation and chemotaxis of human lung fibroblasts by PDGF, interleukin-1beta and TNF-alpha, Mediators Inflamm, 9, 155, 10.1080/09629350020002895 Leeb, 2004, Autocrine fibronectin-induced migration of human colonic myofibroblasts, Am J Gastroenterol, 99, 335, 10.1111/j.1572-0241.2004.04044.x Leeb, 2002, Regulation of migration of human colonic myofibroblasts, Growth Factors, 20, 81, 10.1080/08977190290031941 Leeb, 2003, Reduced migration of fibroblasts in inflammatory bowel disease: role of inflammatory mediators and focal adhesion kinase, Gastroenterology, 125, 1341, 10.1016/j.gastro.2003.07.004 Suganuma, 1995, Enhanced migration of fibroblasts derived from lungs with fibrotic lesions, Thorax, 50, 984, 10.1136/thx.50.9.984 Pontz, 1984, Pattern of collagen synthesis and chemotactic response of fibroblasts derived from mucopolysaccharidosis patients, Exp Cell Res, 155, 457, 10.1016/0014-4827(84)90206-4 Brouty-Boye, 1981, Association of phenotypic reversion of transformed cells induced by interferon with morphological and biochemical changes in the cytoskeleton, Cancer Res, 41, 4174 Knittel, 1999, Rat liver myofibroblasts and hepatic stellate cells: different cell populations of the fibroblast lineage with fibrogenic potential, Gastroenterology, 117, 1205, 10.1016/S0016-5085(99)70407-5 Apte, 1999, Pancreatic stellate cells are activated by proinflammatory cytokines: implications for pancreatic fibrogenesis, Gut, 44, 534, 10.1136/gut.44.4.534 Matsuura, 1999, Retinol esterification activity contributes to retinol transport in stellate cells, Cell Struct Funct, 24, 111, 10.1247/csf.24.111 Rockey, 2006, Hepatic fibrosis, stellate cells, and portal hypertension, Clin Liver Dis, 10, 459, 10.1016/j.cld.2006.08.017 Nagy, 1997, Storage of vitamin A in extrahepatic stellate cells in normal rats, J Lipid Res, 38, 645, 10.1016/S0022-2275(20)37232-1 Theise, 2000, Derivation of hepatocytes from bone marrow cells in mice after radiation-induced myeloablation, Hepatology, 31, 235, 10.1002/hep.510310135 Lagaaij, 2001, Endothelial cell chimerism after renal transplantation and vascular rejection, Lancet, 357, 33, 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)03569-8 Orlic, 2001, Bone marrow cells regenerate infarcted myocardium, Nature, 410, 701, 10.1038/35070587 Poulsom, 2001, Bone marrow contributes to renal parenchymal turnover and regeneration, J Pathol, 195, 229, 10.1002/path.976 Brittan, 2002, Gastrointestinal stem cells, J Pathol, 197, 492, 10.1002/path.1155 Brittan, 2005, A regenerative role for bone marrow following experimental colitis: contribution to neovasculogenesis and myofibroblasts, Gastroenterology, 128, 1984, 10.1053/j.gastro.2005.03.028 Bamba, 2006, Bone marrow transplantation ameliorates pathology in interleukin-10 knockout colitic mice, J Pathol, 209, 265, 10.1002/path.1967 Direkze, 2006, Bone marrow-derived stromal cells express lineage-related messenger RNA species, Cancer Res, 66, 1265, 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-05-3202 Khalil, 2007, Nonmyeloablative stem cell therapy enhances microcirculation and tissue regeneration in murine inflammatory bowel disease, Gastroenterology, 132, 944, 10.1053/j.gastro.2006.12.029 Lamagna, 2006, The bone marrow constitutes a reservoir of pericyte progenitors, J Leukoc Biol, 80, 677, 10.1189/jlb.0506309 Kalluri, 2003, Epithelial-mesenchymal transition and its implications for fibrosis, J Clin Invest, 112, 1776, 10.1172/JCI200320530 Lee, 2006, The epithelial-mesenchymal transition: new insights in signaling, development, and disease, J Cell Biol, 172, 973, 10.1083/jcb.200601018 Bates, 2003, Tumor necrosis factor-alpha stimulates the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition of human colonic organoids, Mol Biol Cell, 14, 1790, 10.1091/mbc.E02-09-0583 Strutz, 2002, Role of basic fibroblast growth factor-2 in epithelial-mesenchymal transformation, Kidney Int, 61, 1714, 10.1046/j.1523-1755.2002.00333.x Zhang, 2007, Aldosterone induces epithelial-mesenchymal transition via ROS of mitochondrial origin, Am J Physiol Renal Physiol, 293, F723, 10.1152/ajprenal.00480.2006 Zeisberg, 2003, BMP-7 counteracts TGF-beta1-induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and reverses chronic renal injury, Nat Med, 9, 964, 10.1038/nm888 Zeisberg, 2007, Fibroblasts derive from hepatocytes in liver fibrosis via epithelial to mesenchymal transition, J Biol Chem, 282, 23337, 10.1074/jbc.M700194200 Kaimori, 2007, Transforming growth factor-beta1 induces an epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition state in mouse hepatocytes in vitro, J Biol Chem, 282, 22089, 10.1074/jbc.M700998200 Yang, 2005, A novel mechanism by which hepatocyte growth factor blocks tubular epithelial to mesenchymal transition, J Am Sco Nephrol, 16, 68, 10.1681/ASN.2003090795 Kagawa, 2006, Hepatocyte growth factor gene therapy slows down the progression of diabetic nephropathy in db/db mice, Nephron Physiol, 102, 92, 10.1159/000090071 Kim, 2005, Growth inhibition and apoptosis in liver myofibroblasts promoted by hepatocyte growth factor leads to resolution from liver cirrhosis, Am J Pathol, 166, 1017, 10.1016/S0002-9440(10)62323-1 Yamashita, 2000, Flk1-positive cells derived from embryonic stem cells serve as vascular progenitors, Nature, 408, 92, 10.1038/35040568 Frid, 2002, Mature vascular endothelium can give rise to smooth muscle cells via endothelial-mesenchymal transdifferentiation: in vitro analysis, Circ Res, 90, 1189, 10.1161/01.RES.0000021432.70309.28 Sarkisov, 1988, Vascular changes in maturing granulation tissue, Biull Eksp Biol Med, 105, 501, 10.1007/BF00841219 Romero, 1997, Interleukin-1 induces major phenotypic changes in human skin microvascular endothelial cells, J Cell Physiol, 173, 84, 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4652(199710)173:1<84::AID-JCP10>3.0.CO;2-N Chaudhuri, 2007, Inflammatory cytokines induce the transformation of human dermal microvascular endothelial cells into myofibroblasts: a potential role in skin fibrogenesis, J Cutan Pathol, 34, 146, 10.1111/j.1600-0560.2006.00584.x Zeisberg, 2007, Endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition contributes to cardiac fibrosis, Nat Med, 13, 952, 10.1038/nm1613 Arciniegas, 1992, Transforming growth factor beta 1 promotes the differentiation of endothelial cells into smooth muscle-like cells in vitro, J Cell Sci, 103, 521, 10.1242/jcs.103.2.521 Arciniegas, 2006, Potential role for insulin-like growth factor II and vitronectin in the endothelial-mesenchymal transition process, Differentiation, 74, 277, 10.1111/j.1432-0436.2006.00079.x Wilm, 2005, The serosal mesothelium is a major source of smooth muscle cells of the gut vasculature, Development, 132, 5317, 10.1242/dev.02141 Allt, 2001, Pericytes: cell biology and pathology, Cells Tissues Organs, 169, 1, 10.1159/000047855 Helmbold, 2001, Isolation and in vitro characterization of human dermal microvascular pericytes, Microvasc Res, 61, 160, 10.1006/mvre.2000.2292 von Tell, 2006, Pericytes and vascular stability, Exp Cell Res, 312, 623, 10.1016/j.yexcr.2005.10.019 Gerhardt, 2003, Endothelial-pericyte interactions in angiogenesis, Cell Tissue Res, 314, 15, 10.1007/s00441-003-0745-x Sundberg, 1996, Pericytes as collagen-producing cells in excessive dermal scarring, Lab Invest, 74, 452 Kahari, 1988, Identification of fibroblasts responsible for increased collagen production in localized scleroderma by in situ hybridization, J Invest Dermatol, 90, 664, 10.1111/1523-1747.ep12560826 Maher, 1990, Extracellular matrix gene expression increases preferentially in rat lipocytes and sinusoidal endothelial cells during hepatic fibrosis in vivo, J Clin Invest, 86, 1641, 10.1172/JCI114886 Arihiro, 2001, Vascular smooth muscle cells and pericytes express MMP-1, MMP-9, TIMP-1 and type I procollagen in inflammatory bowel disease, Histopathology, 39, 50, 10.1046/j.1365-2559.2001.01142.x Bagley, 2006, Pericytes from human non-small cell lung carcinomas: an attractive target for anti-angiogenic therapy, Microvasc Res, 71, 163, 10.1016/j.mvr.2006.03.002 Sennino, 2007, Sequential loss of tumor vessel pericytes and endothelial cells after inhibition of platelet-derived growth factor B by selective aptamer AX102, Cancer Res, 67, 7358, 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-07-0293 Bellini, 2007, The role of the fibrocyte, a bone marrow-derived mesenchymal progenitor, in reactive and reparative fibroses, Lab Invest, 87, 858, 10.1038/labinvest.3700654 Quan, 2004, Circulating fibrocytes: collagen-secreting cells of the peripheral blood, Int J Biochem Cell Biol, 36, 598, 10.1016/j.biocel.2003.10.005 Bucala, 1994, Circulating fibrocytes define a new leukocyte subpopulation that mediates tissue repair, Mol Med, 1, 71, 10.1007/BF03403533 Gordon, 2005, Monocyte and macrophage heterogeneity, Nat Rev Immunol, 5, 953, 10.1038/nri1733 Zhao, 2003, A human peripheral blood monocyte-derived subset acts as pluripotent stem cells, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 100, 2426, 10.1073/pnas.0536882100 Kuwana, 2003, Human circulating CD14+ monocytes as a source of progenitors that exhibit mesenchymal cell differentiation, J Leukoc Biol, 74, 833, 10.1189/jlb.0403170 Schmidt, 2003, Identification of circulating fibrocytes as precursors of bronchial myofibroblasts in asthma, J Immunol, 171, 380, 10.4049/jimmunol.171.1.380 Abe, 2001, Peripheral blood fibrocytes: differentiation pathway and migration to wound sites, J Immunol, 166, 7556, 10.4049/jimmunol.166.12.7556 Pilling, 2006, Aggregated IgG inhibits the differentiation of human fibrocytes, J Leukoc Biol, 79, 1242, 10.1189/jlb.0805456 Pilling, 2003, Inhibition of fibrocyte differentiation by serum amyloid P, J Immunol, 171, 5537, 10.4049/jimmunol.171.10.5537 Haudek, 2006, Bone marrow-derived fibroblast precursors mediate ischemic cardiomyopathy in mice, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 103, 18284, 10.1073/pnas.0608799103 Varcoe, 2006, The role of the fibrocyte in intimal hyperplasia, J Thromb Haemost, 4, 1125, 10.1111/j.1538-7836.2006.01924.x Sakai, 2006, Secondary lymphoid tissue chemokine (SLC/CCL21)/CCR7 signaling regulates fibrocytes in renal fibrosis, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 103, 14098, 10.1073/pnas.0511200103 Aiba, 1997, Inverse correlation between CD34 expression and proline-4-hydroxylase immunoreactivity on spindle cells noted in hypertrophic scars and keloids, J Cutan Pathol, 24, 65, 10.1111/j.1600-0560.1997.tb01098.x Cowper, 2001, Nephrogenic fibrosing dermopathy, Am J Dermatopathol, 23, 383, 10.1097/00000372-200110000-00001 Postlethwaite, 2004, Cellular origins of fibroblasts: possible implications for organ fibrosis in systemic sclerosis, Curr Opin Rheumatol, 16, 733, 10.1097/01.bor.0000139310.77347.9c Nimphius, 2007, CD34+ fibrocytes in chronic cystitis and noninvasive and invasive urothelial carcinomas of the urinary bladder, Virchows Arch, 450, 179, 10.1007/s00428-006-0347-6 Barth, 2002, CD34+ fibrocytes in neoplastic and inflammatory pancreatic lesions, Virchows Arch, 440, 128, 10.1007/s00428-001-0551-3 Chauhan, 2003, There is more than one kind of myofibroblast: analysis of CD34 expression in benign, in situ, and invasive breast lesions, J Clin Pathol, 56, 271, 10.1136/jcp.56.4.271 Sorrentino, 2006, Selective effect of infliximab on the inflammatory component of a colonic stricture in Crohn's disease, Int J Colorectal Dis, 21, 276, 10.1007/s00384-005-0739-0 Sorrentino, 2007, Fibrotic strictures and anti-TNF-alpha therapy in Crohn's disease, Digestion, 75, 22, 10.1159/000101563 Lichtenstein, 2006, Factors associated with the development of intestinal strictures or obstructions in patients with Crohn's disease, Am J Gastroenterol, 101, 1030, 10.1111/j.1572-0241.2006.00463.x Swaminath, 2008, Dilation of colonic strictures by intralesional injection of infliximab in patients with Crohn's colitis, Inflamm Bowel Dis, 14, 213, 10.1002/ibd.20318 Van Assche, 2007, Intramural steroid injection and endoscopic dilation for Crohn's disease, Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol, 5, 1027, 10.1016/j.cgh.2007.07.003 Kugathasan, 2004, CARD15 gene mutations and risk for early surgery in pediatric-onset Crohn's disease, Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol, 2, 1003, 10.1016/S1542-3565(04)00452-5 Pilling, 2007, Reduction of bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis by serum amyloid P, J Immunol, 179, 4035, 10.4049/jimmunol.179.6.4035 Kelly, 2004, Tranilast attenuates structural and functional aspects of renal injury in the remnant kidney model, J Am Soc Nephrol, 15, 2619, 10.1097/01.ASN.0000139066.77892.04 Martin, 2005, Tranilast attenuates cardiac matrix deposition in experimental diabetes: role of transforming growth factor-beta, Cardiovasc Res, 65, 694, 10.1016/j.cardiores.2004.10.041 Oshitani, 2007, Long-term prospective pilot study with tranilast for the prevention of stricture progression in patients with Crohn's disease, Gut, 56, 599, 10.1136/gut.2006.115469