Individual differences in the perceptual span during reading: Evidence from the moving window technique
Tóm tắt
We report the results of an eye tracking experiment that used the gaze-contingent moving window technique to examine individual differences in the size of readers’ perceptual span. Participants read paragraphs while the size of the rightward window of visible text was systematically manipulated across trials. In addition, participants completed a large battery of individual-difference measures representing two cognitive constructs: language ability and oculomotor processing speed. Results showed that higher scores on language ability measures and faster oculomotor processing speed were associated with faster reading times and shorter fixation durations. More interestingly, the size of readers’ perceptual span was modulated by individual differences in language ability but not by individual differences in oculomotor processing speed, suggesting that readers with greater language proficiency are more likely to have efficient mechanisms to extract linguistic information beyond the fixated word.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Acheson, D. J., Wells, J. B., & MacDonald, M. C. (2008). New and updated tests of print exposure and reading abilities in college students. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 278–289.
Apel, J. K., Henderson, J. M., & Ferreira, F. (2012). Targeting regressions: Do readers pay attention to the left? Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 19, 1108–1113.
Ashby, J., Rayner, K., & Clifton, C., Jr. (2005). Eye movements of highly skilled and average readers: Differential effects of frequency and predictability. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A, 58A, 1065–1086.
Ashby, J., Yang, J., Evans, K. H. C., & Rayner, K. (2012). Eye movements and the perceptual span in silent and oral reading. Attention, Perception and Psychophysics, 74, 634–640.
Bates, D., Maechler, M., & Bolker, B (2012). lme4: Linear mixed-effects models using S4 classes (R package version 0.999999-0). Retrieved from http://CRAN.R-project.org/
Cunningham, A. E., & Stanovich, K. E. (1990). Assessing print exposure and orthographic processing skill in children: A quick measure of reading experience. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 733–740.
Cunningham, A. E., & Stanovich, K. E. (1991). Tracking the unique effects of print exposure in children: Associations with vocabulary, general knowledge, and spelling. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 264–274.
Cunningham, A. E., & Stanovich, K. E. (1997). Early reading acquisition and its relation to reading experience and ability 10 years later. Developmental Psychology, 33, 934–945.
Cutting, L. E., & Denckla, M. B. (2001). The relationship of rapid serial naming and word reading in normally developing readers: An exploratory model. Reading and Writing, 14, 673–705.
Denckla, M. B., & Rudel, R. G. (1974). Rapid “automatized” naming of pictured objects, colors, letters, and numbers by normal children. Cortex, 10, 186–202.
Denckla, M. B., & Rudel, R. G. (1976). Rapid ‘automatized’ naming (RAN): Dyslexia differentiated from other learning disabilities. Neuropsychologia, 14, 471–479.
Eden, G. F., Stein, J. F., Wood, H. M., & Wood, F. B. (1994). Differences in eye movements and reading problems in dyslexic and normal children. Vision Research, 34, 1345–1358.
Eskanazi, B., & Diamond, S. P. (1983). Visual exploration of nonverbal material by dyslexic children. Cortex, 19, 345–370.
Griffin, D. C., Walton, H. N., & Ives, V. (1974). Saccades as related to reading disorders. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 7, 310–316.
Häikiö, T., Bertram, R., Hyönä, J., & Niemi, P. (2009). Development of the letter identity span in reading: Evidence from the eye movement moving window paradigm. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 102, 167–181.
Henderson, J. M., & Ferreira, F. (1990). The effects of foveal difficulty on the perceptual span in reading: Implications for attention and eye movement control. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 417–429.
Jared, D., Levy, B. A., & Rayner, K. (1999). The role of phonology in the activation of word meanings during reading: Evidence from proofreading and eye movements. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 128, 219–264.
Juola, J. F., Haugh, D., Trast, S., Ferraro, F. R., & Liebhaber, M. (1987). Reading with and without eye movements. In J. K. O’Regan & A. Levy-Schoen (Eds.), Eye movements: From Physiology to Cognition (pp. 499–508). North-Holland: Elsevier.
Kail, R., & Hall, L. K. (1994). Processing speed, naming speed and reading. Developmental Psychology, 30, 949–954.
Kail, R., Hall, L. K., & Caskey, B. L. (1999). Processing speed, exposure to print, and naming speed. Applied Psycholinguistics, 20, 303–314.
Kulp, M. T., & Schmidt, P. P. (1996). Effect of oculomotor and other visual skills on reading performance: A literature review. Optometry and Vision Science, 73, 283–292.
Kuperman, V., & Van Dyke, J. A. (2011). Effects of individual differences in verbal skills on eye-movement patterns during sentence reading. Journal of Memory and Language, 65, 42–73.
Kuznetsova, A., Brockhoff, P. B., & Christensen, R. H. B. (2013). lmerTest: Tests for random and fixed effects for linear mixed effect models (lmer objects of lme4 package).
Lefton, L. A., Nagle, R. J., Johnson, G., & Fisher, D. F. (1979). Eye movement dynamics of good and poor readers: Then and now. Journal of Reading Behavior, 11, 319–327.
McCardle, P., & Pugh, K. (2009). How children learn to read: current issues and new directions. In The integration of cognition, neurobiology and genetics of reading and dyslexia research and practice. Oxford: Psychology.
McConkie, G. W., & Rayner, K. (1975). The span of the effective stimulus during a fixation in reading. Perception & Psychophysics, 17, 578–586.
Mol, S. E., & Bus, A. G. (2011). To read or not to read: A meta-analysis of print exposure from infancy to early adulthood. Psychological Bulletin, 137, 267–296.
Moore, M., & Gordon, P. C. (2014). Reading ability and print exposure: Item response theory analysis of the Author Recognition Test. Behavioral Research Methods. doi:10.3758/s13428-014-0534-3
Olson, R. K., Kliegl, R., & Davidson, B. J. (1983). Dyslexic and normal readers’ eye movements. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 9, 816–825.
Palmer, J., MacLeod, C. M., Hunt, E., & Davidson, J. E. (1985). Information processing correlates of reading. Journal of Memory and Language, 24, 59–88.
Pavlidis, G. T. (1981). Do eye movements hold the key to dyslexia? Neuropsychologia, 19, 57–64.
Pavlidis, G. T. (1983). The “dyslexia syndrome” and its objective diagnosis by erratic eye movements. In K. Rayner (Ed.), Eye movements in reading: Perceptual and language processes (pp. 441–466). New York: Academic.
Powell, D., Stainthorp, R., Stuart, M., Garwood, H., & Qunlan, P. (2007). An experimental comparison between rival theories of rapid automatized naming performance and its relationship to reading. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 98, 46–68.
R Development Core Team. (2011). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Retrieved from http://www.r-project.org/
Rayner, K. (1975). The perceptual span and peripheral cues in reading. Cognitive Psychology, 7, 65–81.
Rayner, K. (1985). The role of eye movements in learning to read and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 6, 53–60.
Rayner, K. (1986). Eye movements and the perceptual span in beginning and skilled readers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 41, 211–236.
Rayner, K. (2009). Eye movements and attention in reading, scene perception, and visual search. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 62, 1457–1506.
Rayner, K. (2014). The gaze-contingent moving window in reading: Development and review. Visual Cognition, 22, 242–258.
Rayner, K., Murphy, L. A., Henderson, J. M., & Pollatsek, A. (1989). Selective attentional dyslexia. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 6, 357–378.
Rayner, K., Slattery, T. J., & Bélanger, N. N. (2010). Eye movements, the perceptual span, and reading speed. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 17, 834–839.
Reichle, E. D., Pollatsek, A., Fisher, D. L., & Rayner, K. (1998). Toward a model of eye movement control in reading. Psychological Review, 105, 125–157.
Rieben, L., & Perfetti, C. A. (Eds.). (1991). Learning to read: Basic research and its implications. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Savage, R., Pillay, V., & Melidona, S. (2007). Deconstructing rapid naming: Component processing and the prediction of reading difficulties. Learning and Individual Differences, 17, 129–146.
Stanley, G., Smith, G. A., & Howell, E. A. (1983). Eye movements and sequential tracking in dyslexic and control children. British Journal of Psychology, 74, 181–187.
Stanovich, K. E., & West, R. F. (1989). Exposure to print and orthographic processing. Reading Research Quarterly, 24, 402–433.
Stanovich, K. E., West, R. F., & Harrison, M. R. (1995). Knowledge growth and maintenance across the life span: The role of print exposure. Developmental Psychology, 31, 811–826.
Swanson, H. L., Trainin, G., Necoechea, D. M., & Hammill, D. D. (2003). Rapid naming, phonological awareness, and reading: A meta-analysis of the correlation evidence. Review of Educational Research, 73, 407–440.
Veldre, A., & Andrews, S. (2014). Lexical quality and eye movements: Individual differences in the perceptual span of skilled adult readers. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 67, 703–727.
Veldre, A., & Andrews, S. (2015). Parafoveal lexical activation depends on skilled reading proficiency. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 41, 586–589.
Venables, W. N., & Ripley, B. D. (2002). Modern applied statistics with S (4th ed.). New York: Springer.
West, R. F., Stanovich, K. E., & Mitchell, H. R. (1993). Reading in the real world and its correlates. Reading Research Quarterly, 28, 35–50.
Wolf, M., & Bowers, P. G. (1999). The double-deficit hypothesis for the developmental dyslexias. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 415–438.
Woodcock, R. W. (2011). Wookcock reading mastery tests third edition manual. Oxford: Pearson.