In Vivo Corneal Confocal Microscopy in Multiple Sclerosis: Can it Differentiate Disease Relapse in Multiple Sclerosis?

Lassmann, 2007, The immunopathology of multiple sclerosis: an overview, Brain Pathol, 17, 210, 10.1111/j.1750-3639.2007.00064.x Kobelt, 2017, New insights into the burden and costs of multiple sclerosis in Europe, Mult Scler, 23, 1123, 10.1177/1352458517694432 Steinman, 2014, Immunology of relapse and remission in multiple sclerosis, Annu Rev Immunol, 32, 257, 10.1146/annurev-immunol-032713-120227 Thompson, 2018, Diagnosis of multiple sclerosis: 2017 revisions of the McDonald criteria, Lancet Neurol, 17, 162, 10.1016/S1474-4422(17)30470-2 Dendrou, 2015, Immunopathology of multiple sclerosis, Nat Rev Immunol, 15, 545, 10.1038/nri3871 Kalincik, 2015, Multiple sclerosis relapses: epidemiology, outcomes and management. A systematic review, Neuroepidemiology, 44, 199, 10.1159/000382130 Chard, 2019, An asymptomatic new lesion on MRI is a relapse and should be treated accordingly - No, Mult Scler, 25, 1843, 10.1177/1352458519845111 Tallantyre, 2015, The aetiology of acute neurological decline in multiple sclerosis: experience from an open-access clinic, Mult Scler, 21, 67, 10.1177/1352458514538333 Berkovich, 2016, Acute multiple sclerosis relapse, Continuum (Minneap Minn), 22, 799 Vollmer, 2007, The natural history of relapses in multiple sclerosis, J Neurol Sci, 256, S5, 10.1016/j.jns.2007.01.065 Nazareth, 2018, Relapse prevalence, symptoms, and health care engagement: patient insights from the Multiple Sclerosis in America 2017 survey, Mult Scler Relat Disord, 26, 219, 10.1016/j.msard.2018.09.002 Muller, 1997, Architecture of human corneal nerves, Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 38, 985 Kim, 2018, Automatic analysis of corneal nerves imaged using in vivo confocal microscopy, Clin Exp Optom, 101, 147, 10.1111/cxo.12640 Petropoulos, 2020, Corneal confocal microscopy: ready for prime time, Clin Exp Optom, 103, 265, 10.1111/cxo.12887 Mikolajczak, 2017, Patients with multiple sclerosis demonstrate reduced subbasal corneal nerve fibre density, Mult Scler, 23, 1847, 10.1177/1352458516677590 Bitirgen, 2017, Use of corneal confocal microscopy to detect corneal nerve loss and increased dendritic cells in patients with multiple sclerosis, JAMA Ophthalmol, 135, 777, 10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2017.1590 Petropoulos, 2017, Corneal confocal microscopy: an imaging endpoint for axonal degeneration in multiple sclerosis, Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 58, 3677, 10.1167/iovs.17-22050 Petropoulos, 2021, Corneal confocal microscopy demonstrates axonal loss in different courses of multiple sclerosis, Sci Rep, 11, 21688, 10.1038/s41598-021-01226-1 Hamrah, 2007, Corneal antigen-presenting cells, Chem Immunol Allergy, 92, 58, 10.1159/000099254 Mayer, 2012, Distribution of antigen presenting cells in the human cornea: correlation of in vivo confocal microscopy and immunohistochemistry in different pathologic entities, Curr Eye Res, 37, 1012, 10.3109/02713683.2012.696172 Gao, 2016, Intraepithelial dendritic cells and sensory nerves are structurally associated and functional interdependent in the cornea, Sci Rep, 6, 36414, 10.1038/srep36414 Longhini, 2011, Plasmacytoid dendritic cells are increased in cerebrospinal fluid of untreated patients during multiple sclerosis relapse, J Neuroinflammation, 8, 2, 10.1186/1742-2094-8-2 Pashenkov, 2001, Two subsets of dendritic cells are present in human cerebrospinal fluid, Brain, 124, 480, 10.1093/brain/124.3.480 Testa, 2020, Corneal epithelial dendritic cells in patients with multiple sclerosis: an in vivo confocal microscopy study, J Clin Neurosci, 81, 139, 10.1016/j.jocn.2020.09.041 Khan, 2021, Corneal immune cells are increased in patients with multiple sclerosis, Transl Vis Sci Technol, 10, 19, 10.1167/tvst.10.4.19 Kurtzke, 1955, A new scale for evaluating disability in multiple sclerosis, Neurology, 5, 580, 10.1212/WNL.5.8.580 Filippi, 2019, Assessment of lesions on magnetic resonance imaging in multiple sclerosis: practical guidelines, Brain, 142, 1858, 10.1093/brain/awz144 Gajofatto, 2015, Treatment strategies for multiple sclerosis: when to start, when to change, when to stop?, World J Clin Cases, 3, 545, 10.12998/wjcc.v3.i7.545 Mehra, 2007, Corneal confocal microscopy detects early nerve regeneration after pancreas transplantation in patients with type 1 diabetes, Diabetes Care, 30, 2608, 10.2337/dc07-0870 Frutos-Rincón, 2022, An experimental model of neuro-immune interactions in the eye: corneal sensory nerves and resident dendritic cells, Int J Mol Sci, 23, 2997, 10.3390/ijms23062997 Dana, 2004, Corneal antigen-presenting cells: diversity, plasticity, and disguise: the Cogan lecture, Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 45, 722, 10.1167/iovs.03-0803 Lagali, 2018, Dendritic cell maturation in the corneal epithelium with onset of type 2 diabetes is associated with tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 9, Sci Rep, 8, 14248, 10.1038/s41598-018-32410-5 Shah, 2021, Systemic diseases and the cornea, Exp Eye Res, 204, 10.1016/j.exer.2021.108455 Jiao, 2020, Topographical and morphological differences of corneal dendritic cells during steady state and inflammation, Ocul Immunol Inflamm, 28, 898, 10.1080/09273948.2019.1646775 Stettner, 2016, Corneal confocal microscopy in chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy, Ann Clin Transl Neurol, 3, 88, 10.1002/acn3.275 Bitirgen, 2018, Corneal confocal microscopy detects corneal nerve damage and increased dendritic cells in Fabry disease, Sci Rep, 8, 12244, 10.1038/s41598-018-30688-z Nuyts, 2013, Dendritic cells in multiple sclerosis: key players in the immunopathogenesis, key players for new cellular immunotherapies?, Mult Scler, 19, 995, 10.1177/1352458512473189 Hamrah, 2003, Corneal immunity is mediated by heterogeneous population of antigen-presenting cells, J Leukoc Biol, 74, 172, 10.1189/jlb.1102544 Zhivov, 2005, In vivo confocal microscopic evaluation of Langerhans cell density and distribution in the normal human corneal epithelium, Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol, 243, 1056, 10.1007/s00417-004-1075-8 Akhlaq, 2022, Density and distribution of dendritiform cells in the peripheral cornea of healthy subjects using in vivo confocal microscopy, Ocul Surf, 26, 157, 10.1016/j.jtos.2022.07.008 Chinnery, 2021, Corneal immune cell morphometry as an indicator of local and systemic pathology: a review, Clin Exp Ophthalmol, 49, 729, 10.1111/ceo.13972 Colorado, 2020, In vivo immune cell dynamics in the human cornea, Exp Eye Res, 199, 10.1016/j.exer.2020.108168 Ostkamp, 2021, Sunlight exposure exerts immunomodulatory effects to reduce multiple sclerosis severity, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 118, 10.1073/pnas.2018457118 Peris-Martínez, 2021, Spectral transmission of the human corneal layers, J Clin Med, 10, 4490, 10.3390/jcm10194490 Cruzat, 2011, Inflammation and the nervous system: the connection in the cornea in patients with infectious keratitis, Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 52, 5136, 10.1167/iovs.10-7048 Comabella, 2010, Targeting dendritic cells to treat multiple sclerosis, Nat Rev Neurol, 6, 499, 10.1038/nrneurol.2010.112 Wattjes, 2015, Evidence-based guidelines: MAGNIMS consensus guidelines on the use of MRI in multiple sclerosis–establishing disease prognosis and monitoring patients, Nat Rev Neurol, 11, 597, 10.1038/nrneurol.2015.157 Absinta, 2020, Mechanisms underlying progression in multiple sclerosis, Curr Opin Neurol, 33, 277, 10.1097/WCO.0000000000000818 Barkhof, 1992, Relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: sequential enhanced MR imaging vs clinical findings in determining disease activity, AJR Am J Roentgenol, 159, 1041, 10.2214/ajr.159.5.1414773 Bitirgen, 2020, Progressive loss of corneal and retinal nerve fibers in patients with multiple sclerosis: a 2-year follow-up study, Transl Vis Sci Technol, 9, 37, 10.1167/tvst.9.13.37 Prineas, 1993, Multiple sclerosis: remyelination of nascent lesions, Ann Neurol, 33, 137, 10.1002/ana.410330203 Podbielska, 2013, Myelin recovery in multiple sclerosis: the challenge of remyelination, Brain Sci, 3, 1282, 10.3390/brainsci3031282 Gao, 2016, Dendritic cell dysfunction and diabetic sensory neuropathy in the cornea, J Clin Invest, 126, 1998, 10.1172/JCI85097 Kalteniece, 2017, Corneal confocal microscopy is a rapid reproducible ophthalmic technique for quantifying corneal nerve abnormalities, PLoS One, 12, 10.1371/journal.pone.0183040 Vagenas, 2012, Optimal image sample size for corneal nerve morphometry, Optom Vis Sci, 89, 812, 10.1097/OPX.0b013e31824ee8c9 Utsunomiya, 2015, Imaging of the corneal subbasal whorl-like nerve plexus: more accurate depiction of the extent of corneal nerve damage in patients with diabetes, Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 56, 5417, 10.1167/iovs.15-16609 Chiang, 2022, Reproducibility and reliability of subbasal corneal nerve parameters of the inferior whorl in the neurotoxic and healthy cornea, Cornea, 41, 1487, 10.1097/ICO.0000000000002947 Alzahrani, 2016, Changes in corneal Langerhans cell density during the first few hours of contact lens wear, Cont Lens Anterior Eye, 39, 307, 10.1016/j.clae.2016.02.008 Patel, 2008, In vivo laser scanning confocal microscopy confirms that the human corneal sub-basal nerve plexus is a highly dynamic structure, Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 49, 3409, 10.1167/iovs.08-1951 Al Rashah, 2018, Corneal nerve migration rate in a healthy control population, Optom Vis Sci, 95, 672, 10.1097/OPX.0000000000001254 Edwards, 2016, Development of a novel technique to measure corneal nerve migration rate, Cornea, 35, 700, 10.1097/ICO.0000000000000790