Identifying situational predictors of police shootings using multivariate analysis
Tóm tắt
Từ khóa
Tài liệu tham khảo
Alpert, G.P. (1989), “Police use of deadly force: the Miami experience”, in Dunham, R.G. and Alpert, G.P. (Eds), Critical Issues in Policing, Waveland Press, Prospect Heights, IL, pp. 480‐96.
Bayley, D.H. (1986), “The tactical choices of police patrol officers”, Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 14, pp. 329‐48.
Bayley, D.H. and Garofalo, J. (1989), “The management of violence by police patrol officers”, Criminology, Vol. 27, pp. 1‐25.
Binder, A. and Fridell, L.A. (1984), “Lethal force as a police response”, Criminal Justice Abstracts, Vol. 16, pp. 250‐80.
Binder, A. and Scharf, P. (1980), “The violent police‐citizen encounter”, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 452, pp. 111‐21.
Bittner, E. (1970), The Functions of the Police in Modern Society, National Institute of Mental Health, Rockville, MD.
Blumberg, M. (1989), “Controlling police use of deadly force: assessing two decades of progress”, in Dunham, R.G. and Alpert, G.P. (Eds), Critical Issues in Policing, Waveland Press, Prospect Heights, IL, pp. 442‐64.
Cerar, J.C. (1990), “Firearms discharge assault report, 1990”, New York City Police Department Academy Firearms and Tactics Section, New York, NY (unpublished).
Friedrich, R.J. (1980), “Police use of force: individuals, situations, and organizations”, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 452, pp. 82‐97.
Fyfe, J.J. (1978), “Shots fired: an analysis of New York City police firearms discharges”, PhD dissertation, State University of New York, Albany, NY (University Microfilms, Ann Arbor MI).
Fyfe, J.J. (1979), “Administrative interventions on police shooting discretion: an empirical examination”, Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 7, pp. 309‐24.
Fyfe, J.J. (1980), “Geographic correlates of police shooting: a microanalysis”, Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, Vol. 17, pp. 101‐13.
Fyfe, J.J. (Ed.) (1981a), “Toward a typology of police shootings”, in Contemporary Issues in Law Enforcement, Sage Publications, Beverly Hills, CA, pp. 136‐51.
Fyfe, J.J. (1981b), “Who shoots? A look at officer race and police shooting”, Journal of Police Science and Administration, Vol. 9, pp. 367‐82.
Fyfe, J.J. (1982), “Blind justice: police shootings in Memphis”, Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, Vol. 73, pp. 702‐22.
Fyfe, J.J. (1986), “The split‐second syndrome and other determinants of police violence”, in Campbell, A.T. and Gibbs, J.J. (Eds), Violent Transactions, Basil Blackwell, Oxford.
Fyfe, J.J. (1987), “Police shooting: environment and license”, in Scott, J.E. and Hirschi, T. (Eds), Controversial Issues in Crime and Justice, Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA.
Fyfe, J.J. (1988), “Police use of deadly force: research and reform”, Justice Quarterly, Vol. 5, pp. 165‐205.
Fyfe, J.J. (1989), “Police/citizen violence reduction project”, FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, Vol. 58, pp. 18‐25.
Gain, C. (1971), “Discharge of firearms policy: effecting justice through administrative regulation”, unpublished memorandum, December 23.
Geller, W. and Karales, K. (1981a), Split‐Second Decisions: Shootings of and by Chicago Police, Chicago Law Enforcement Study Group, Chicago, IL.
Geller, W. and Karales, K. (1981b), “Shootings of and by Chicago police: uncommon crises – part I: shootings by Chicago police”, Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, Vol. 72 No. 4, pp. 1813‐66.
Geller, W. and Karales, K. (1982), “Shootings of and by Chicago police: uncommon crises – Part II: shootings of police, shooting correlates and control strategies”, Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, Vol. 73 No. 1, pp. 331‐78.
Geller, W. and Scott, M.S. (1992), Deadly Force: What We Know, Police Executive Research Forum, Washington, DC.
Goldkamp, J.S. (1976), “Minorities as victims of police shootings: interpretations of racial disproportionality and police use of deadly force”, Justice System Journal, Vol. 2, pp. 169‐83.
Hamilton, L.C. (1992), Regression with Graphics, Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, Pacific Grove, CA.
Horvath, F. (1987), “The police use of deadly force: a description of selected characteristics of intra‐state incidents”, Journal of Police Science and Administration, Vol. 15 No. 3, pp. 226‐38.
Horvath, F. and Donahue, M. (1982), Deadly Force: An Analysis of Shootings by Police in Michigan, 1976‐1981, monograph, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI.
Jacobs, D. and Britt, D. (1979), “Inequality and police use of deadly force: an empirical assessment of the conflict hypothesis”, Social Problems, Vol. 26, pp. 403‐12.
Jacobs, D. and O’Brien, R.M. (1998), “The determinants of deadly force: a structural analysis of police violence”, American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 103, pp. 837‐62.
Kania, R.E. and Mackey, W.C. (1977), “Police violence as a function of community characteristics”, Criminology, Vol. 15, pp. 27‐48.
Knoohuizen, R., Fahey, R.P. and Palmer, D.J. (1972), The Police and Their Use of Fatal Force in Chicago, Chicago Law Enforcement Study Group, Chicago, IL.
Kobler, A.L. (1975a), “Figures (and perhaps some facts) on police killing of civilians in the United States, 1965‐1969”, Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 31, pp. 185‐91.
Kobler, A.L. (1975b), “Police homicide in a democracy”, Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 31, pp. 163‐84.
Liska, A.E. and Yu, J. (1992), “Specifying and testing the threat hypothesis”, in Liska, A. (Ed.), Social Threat and Social Control, State University Press of New York, Albany, NY, pp. 53‐68.
Lyons v. City of Los Angeles (1983), 461 US 95, 98.
Magidson, J. (1993), SPSS for Windows: CHAID, Release 6.0, SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL.
Margarita, M. (1980), “Killing the police: myths and motives”, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 452, pp. 72‐81.
Matulia, K.J. (1985), A Balance of Forces: Model Deadly Force Policies and Procedure, 2nd ed., International Association of Chiefs of Police, Gaithersburg, MD.
Meyer, M.W. (1980), “Police shootings of minorities: the case of Los Angeles”, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 452, pp. 98‐110.
Milton, C., Halleck, J.S., Lardner, J. and Albrecht, G.L. (1977), Police Use of Deadly Force, Police Foundation, Washington, DC.
New York State Commission on Criminal Justice and the Use of Force (1987), “Report to the governor”, Vol. 1 (unpublished report).
President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice (1967), Task Force Report: The Police, US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
Reiss, A.J. Jr (1980), “Controlling police use of deadly force”, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 452, pp. 122‐34.
Rizzo v. Goode (1976), 423 U.S. 362, also 357 F. Supp. 1289; 506 F. 2d 542, 548 (1974).
Robin, G.D. (1963), “Justifiable homicide by police officers”, Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology and Police Science, pp. 225‐31.
Sherman, L.W. (1980), “Causes of police behavior: the current state of quantitative research”, Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, Vol. 17, pp. 69‐100.
Sherman, L.W. and Langworthy, R.H. (1979), “Measuring homicide by police officers”, Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, Vol. 70, pp. 546‐60.
Skolnick, J.H. and Fyfe, J.J. (1993), Above the Law: Police and the Excessive Use of Force, Free Press, New York, NY.
Sorenson, J.R., Marquart, J.W. and Brock, D.E. (1993), “Factors related to killings of felons by police officers: a test of the community violence and conflict hypotheses”, Justice Quarterly,Vol. 10 No. 3, pp. 417‐40.
Takagi, P. (1974), “A garrison state in ‘democratic’ society”, Crime and Social Justice: A Journal of Radical Criminology, pp. 27‐33.
Tennenbaum, A.N. (1994), “The influence of the Garner decision on police use of deadly force”, Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, Vol. 85, pp. 241‐60.
Tennessee v. Garner (1985), 471 US 1, 105 S. Ct. 1694, 85 L. Ed. 1. Lower Court Rulings: Garner v. Memphis Police Department, 600 F. 2d 52 (6th Cir. 1979); Garner v. Memphis Police Department, Civil Action No. C‐75‐145, Memorandum Opinion and Order, slip opinion (Tenn, W.D., July 8 1981); Garner v. Memphis Police Department, 710 F. 2d. 240 (6th Cir. 1983).
(The) Philadelphia Inquirer (1991), “It was a long and colorful career”, July 16, p. 1A.
Toch, H. (1969), Violent Men: An Inquiry into the Psychology of Violence, American Psychological Association, Washington, DC.
Waegel, W.B. (1984), “The use of lethal force by police: the effect of statutory change”, Crime and Delinquency, Vol. 30 No. 1, pp. 121‐40.
Walker, S. (1993), Taming the System – The Control of Discretion in Criminal Justice, 1950‐1990, Oxford University Press, New York, NY.
White, M.D. (1999), “Police shootings in Philadelphia: an analysis of two decades of deadly force”, PhD dissertation, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA (University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, MI).
White, M.D. (2000), “Assessing the impact of administrative policy on use of deadly force by on‐ and off‐duty police”, Evaluation Review, Vol. 24 No. 3, pp. 295‐318.
