Hypoxia in the northern Gulf of Mexico: Does the science support the Plan to Reduce, Mitigate, and Control Hypoxia?

Nancy N. Rabalais1, R. Eugene Turner2, Bhaskar Sen Gupta2, Donald F. Boesch3, Piers Chapman4, Michael C. Murrell5
1Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium, Chauvin
2Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge
3University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, Cambridge
4Texas A&M University, College Station
5U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Gulf Ecology Division, Gulf Breeze

Tóm tắt

Từ khóa


Tài liệu tham khảo

Bianchi, T. S., T. Filley, K. Dria, andP. G. Hatcher. 2004. Temporal variability in sources of dissolved organic carbon in the lower Mississippi river.Geochmida et Cosmochimica Acta 68: 959–967.

Bierman, Jr., V. J., S. C. Hinz, D. Zhu, W. J. Wiseman, Jr., N. N. Rabalais, andR. E. Turner. 1994. A preliminary mass balance model of primary productivity and dissolved oxygen in the Mississippi River plume/inner Gulf Shelf region.Estuaries 17: 886–899.

Bierman, Jr., V. J., S. C. Hinz, D. Zhu, W. J. Wiseman, Jr., N. N. Rabalais, andR. E. Turner. 2003. Forecasting hypoxia in the Gulf of Mexico: Responses to nutrient loadings from the Mississippi River Basin, p. 91–96.In N.J. Valette-Silver and D. Scavia (eds.), Ecological Forecasting: New Tools for Coastal and Ecosystem Management. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS NCCOS 1. NOAA Coastal Ocean Program, Silver Spring, Maryland.

Blackwelder, P., T. Hood, C. Alvarez-Zarikian, T. A. Nelsen, andB. A. McKee. 1996. Benthic Foraminifera from the NECOP study area impacted by the Mississippi River plume and seasonal hypoxia.Quaternary International 31:19–36.

Boesch, D. F. 2002. Challenges and opportunities for science in reducing nutrient over-enrichment of coastal ecosystems.Estuaries 25:744–758.

Boesch, D. F. 2006. Scientific requirements for ecosystem-based management in the restoration of Chesapeake Bay and Coastal Louisiana.Ecological Engineering 26:6–26.

Bratkovich, A., S. P. Dinnel, andD. A. Goolsby. 1994. Variability and prediction of freshwater and nitrate fluxes for the Louisiana-Texas shelf: Mississippi and Atchafalaya River source functions.Estuaries 17:766–778.

Brezonik, P. L., V.J. Bierman Jr., R. Alexander, J. Anderson, J. Barko, M. Dortch, L. Hatch, G. L. Hitchcock, D. Keeney, D. Mulla, V. Smith, C. Walker, T. Whitledge, andW. J. WisemanJr. 1999. Effects of Reducing Nutrient Loads to Surface Waters within the Mississippi River Basin and the Gulf of Mexico, Topic 4 Report for the Integrated Assessment on Hypoxia in the Gulf of Mexico. NOAA Coastal Ocean Program Decision Analysis Series 18. NOAA Coastal Ocean Program, Silver Spring, Maryland.

Brunner, C. A., J. M. Beall, S. J. Bentley, andY. Furukawa. 2006. Hypoxia hotspots in the Mississippi Bight.Journal of Foraminiferal Research 36:95–107.

Chen, N., T. S. Bianchi, B. A. McKee, andJ. M. Bland. 2001. Historical trends of hypoxia on the Louisiana shelf: Applications of pigments as biomarkers.Organic Geochemistry 32:543- 561.

Cloern, J. E. 2001. Review. Our evolving conceptual model of the coastal eutrophication problem.Marine Ecology Progress Series 210:223–253.

Committee on Environment and Natural Resources (CENR). 2000. Integrated Assessment of Hypoxia in the Northern Gulf of Mexico. National Science and Technology Council, Washington, D.C.

Diaz, R. J. 2001. Overview of hypoxia around the world.Journal of Environmental Quality 30:275–281.

Diaz, R. J., J. Nestlerode, andM. L. Diaz. 2004. A global perspective on the effects of eutrophication and hypoxia on aquatic biota, p. 1–33.In G. L. Rupp and M. D. White (eds.), Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium on Fish Physiology, Toxicology and Water Quality, Tallinn, Estonia. EPA 600/R-04/049, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Ecosystems Research Division, Athens, Georgia.

Diaz, R. J. andR. Rosenberg. 1995. Marine benthic hypoxia: A review of its ecological effects and the behavioural responses of benthic macrofauna.Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review 33:245–303.

Dinnel, S. P. andW. J. Wiseman Jr. 1986. Fresh-water on the Louisiana and Texas Shelf.Continental Shelf Research 6:765–784.

Donner, S. andD. Scavia. 2007. How climate controls the flux of nitrogen by the Mississippi River and the development of hypoxia in the Gulf of Mexico.Limnology and Oceanography 52: 856–861.

Donner, S. D., M. T. Coe, J. D. Lenters, T. E. Twine, andJ. A. Foley. 2002. Modeling the impact of hydrological changes on nitrate transport in the Mississippi River Basin from 1955 to 1994.Global Biochemical Cycles 16:10.1029/2001GB001396.

Dortch, Q., N. N. Rabalais, R. E. Turner, andG. T. Rowe. 1994. Respiration rates and hypoxia on the Louisiana shelf.Estuaries 17:862–872.

Duan, S. andT. S. Bianchi. 2006. Seasonal changes in the abundance and composition of plant pigments in particulate organic carbon in the lower Mississippi and Pearl Rivers.Estuaries and Coasts 29:427–442.

Dunn, D. D. 1996. Trends in Nutrient Inflows to the Gulf of Mexico from Streams Draining the Conterminous United States 1972–1993. U.S. Geological Survey, Water-Resources Investigations Report 96-4113. Prepared in cooperation with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Gulf of Mexico Program, Nutrient Enrichment Issue Committee, U.S. Geological Survey, Austin, Texas.

Dyhrman, S. T. andK. C. Ruttenberg. 2006. Presence and regulation of alkaline phosphatase activity in eukaryotic phytoplankton from the coastal ocean: Implications dissolved organic phosphorus remineralization.Limnology and Oceanography 51:1381–1390.

Galloway, J. N. andE. B. Cowling. 2002. Reactive nitrogen and the world: Two hundred years of change.Ambio 31:64–71.

Glibert, P. M., J. Harrison, C. Heil, andS. Seitzinger. 2006. Escalating worldwide use of urea—A global change contribution to coastal eutrophication.Biogeochemistry 77:441–463.

Goolsby, D. A. 2000. Mississippi Basin nitrogen flux believed to cause Gulf hypoxia.Eos, Transactions of the American Geophysical Union 81:325–327.

Goolsby, D. A. andW. A. Battaglin. 2001. Long-term changes in concentrations and flux of nitrogen in the Mississippi River Basin, USA.Hydrologic Processes 15:1209–1226.

Goolsby, D. A., W. A. Battaglin, G. B. Lawrence, R. S. Artz, B. T. Aulenbach, R. P. Hooper, D. R. Keeney, andG. J. Stensland. 1999. Flux and Sources of Nutrients in the MississippiAtchafalaya River Basin, Topic 3 Report for the Integrated Assessment of Hypoxia in the Gulf of Mexico. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Coastal Ocean Program Decision Analysis Series No. 17. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Coastal Ocean Program, Silver Spring, Maryland.

Hagy, J. D., W. R. Boynton, C. W. Keefe, andK. V. Wood. 2004. Hypoxia in Chesapeake Bay, 1950–2001: Long-term change in relation to nutrient loading and river flow.Estuaries 27:634–658.

Harper, Jr., D. E., L. D. McKinney, J. M. Nance, andR. R. Salzer. 1991. Recovery responses of two benthic assemblages following an acute hypoxic event on the Texas continental shelf, northwestern Gulf of Mexico, p. 49–64.In R. V. Tyson and T. H. Pearson (eds.), Modern and Ancient Continental Shelf Anoxia, Geological Society Special Publication No. 58. The Geological Society, London, England.

Harper, Jr., D. E., R. R. Salzer, andR. J. Case. 1981. The occurrence of hypoxic bottom water off the upper Texas coast and its effect on the benthic biota.Contributions in Marine Science 24:53–79.

Justić, D. 1991. A simple oxygen index for trophic state description.Marine Pollution Bulletin 22:201–204.

Justić, D., N. N. Rabalais, andR. E. Turner. 2002. Modeling the impacts of decadal changes in riverine nutrient fluxes on coastal eutrophication near the Mississippi River Delta.Ecological Modelling 152:33–46.

Justić, D., N. N. Rabalais, andR. E. Turner. 2003a. Climatic influences on riverine nitrate flux: Implications for coastal marine eutrophication and hypoxia.Estuaries 26:1–11.

Justić, D., N. N. Rabalais, andR. E. Turner. 2003b. Simulated responses of the Gulf of Mexico hypoxia to variations in climate and anthropogenic nutrient loading.Journal of Marine Systems 42:115–126.

Justić, D., N. N. Rabalais, andR. E. Turner. 2005. Coupling between climate variability and marine coastal eutrophication: Historical evidence and future outlook.Journal of Sea Research 54:25–35.

Justić, D., N. N. Rabalais, R. E. Turner, andQ. Dortch. 1995. Changes in nutrient structure of river-dominated coastal waters: Stoichiometric nutrient balance and its consequences.Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 40:339–356.

Karl, T. R. andR. W. Knight. 1998. Secular trends of precipitation amount, frequency, and intensity in the United States.Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 79:231–241.

Karlsen, A. W., T. M. Cronin, S. E. Ishman, D. A. Willard, R. Kerhin, C. W. Holmes, andM. Marot. 2000. Historical trends in Chesapeake Bay dissolved oxygen based on benthic Foraminifera from sediment cores.Estuaries 23:488–508.

Kerr, R. 2006. Global warming may be homing in on Atlantic hurricanes.Science 314:910–911.

Krest, J. M., W. S. Moore, andRama. 1999.226Ra and228Ra in the mixing zones of the Mississippi and Atchafalaya Rivers: Indicators of groundwater input.Marine Chemistry 64:129–152.

Lancelot, C., J.-M. Martin, N. Patin, andY. Zaitsev. 2002. The north-western Black Sea: A pilot site to under the complex interaction between human activities and the coastal environment.Estuarine and Continental Shelf Science 54:279–283.

Limno-Tech, Inc. 1995. Estimated Responses of Water Quality on the Louisiana Inner Shelf to Nutrient Load Reductions in the Mississippi and Atchafalaya Rivers. Revised Final Report to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Gulf of Mexico Program Office, John C. Stennis Space Center, Mississippi.

Mann, M. E. andK. A. Emanual. 2006. Atlantic hurricane trends linked to climate change.Eos, Transactions of the American Geophysical Union 87:233–244.

McCoy, C., D. R. Corbett, B. A. McKee, andZ. Top. 2007. An evaluation of submarine groundwater discharge along the continental shelf of Louisiana using a multiple tracer approach.Journal of Geophysical Research — Oceans 112, C03013, doi:10.1029/2006JC003505.

Meade, R. H. (ed.). 1995. Contaminants in the Mississippi River, 1987–1992. U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1133, U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, Colorado.

Mee, L. D. 1992. The Black Sea in crisis: A need for concerted international effort.Ambio 21:278–286.

Mee, L. D. 2001. Eutrophication in the Black Sea and a basin-wide approach to its control, p. 71–91.In B. von Bodungen and R. K. Turner (eds.), Science and Integrated Coastal Management, Dahlem University Press, Berlin, Germany.

Mee, L. D., J. J. Friedrich, andM. T. Gomoiu. 2005. Restoring the Black Sea in times of uncertainty.Oceanography 8:100–111.

Miller, J. R. andG. L. Russell. 1992. The impact of global warming on river runoff.Journal of Geophysical. Research 97:2757- 2764.

Milliman, J. D. andR. H. Meade. 1983. World-wide delivery of river sediment to the oceans.Journal of Geology 91:1–21.

Mississippi River/Gulf of Mexico Watershed Nutrient Task Force. 2001. Action Plan for Reducing, Mitigating, and Controlling Hypoxia in the Northern Gulf of Mexico. Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.

Mitsch, W. J., J. W. Day Jr., J. W. Gilliam, P. M. Groffman, D. L. Hey, G. W. Randall, andN. Wang. 2001. Reducing nitrogen loading to the Gulf of Mexico from the Mississippi River basin: Strategies to counter a persistent ecological problem.BioScience 51:373–388.

National Research Council. 2000. Clean Coastal Waters. Understanding and Reducing the Effects of Nutrient Pollution. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.

Nelsen, T. A., P. Blackwelder, T. Hood, B. McKee, N. Romer, C. Alvarez-Zarikian, andS. Metz. 1994. Time-based correlation of biogenic, lithogenic and authigenic sediment components with anthropogenic inputs in the Gulf of Mexico NECOP study area.Estuaries 17:873–885.

Nürnberg, G. 2004. Quantified hypoxia and anoxia in lakes and reservoirs.TheScientifWorldJOURNAL 4:42–54. DOI 10.1100/ tsw.2004.5.

Osterman, L. E., R. Z. Poore, P. W. Swarzenski, andR. E. Turner. 2005. Reconstructing a 180-yr record of natural and anthropogenic induced low-oxygen conditions from Louisiana continental shelf sediments.Geology 33:329–333.

Parsons, M., Q. Dortch, andR. E. Turner. 2002. Sedimentological evidence of an increase inPseudo-nitzschia (Bacillariophyceae) abundance in response to coastal eutrophication.Limnology and Oceanography 47:551–558.

Platon, E. andB. K. Sen Gupta. 2001. Foraminiferal communities of oxygen-stressed environments on the Louisiana continental shelf, p. 147–163.In N. N. Rabalais and R. E. Turner (eds.), Coastal Hypoxia: Consequences for Living Resources and Ecosystems. Coastal and Estuarine Studies 58, American Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C.

Platon, E., B. K. Sen Gupta, N. N. Rabalais, andR. E. Turner. 2005. Effect of seasonal hypoxia on the benthic foraminiferal community of the Louisiana inner continental shelf: The 20th century record.Marine Micropaleontology 54:263–283.

Pokryfki, L. andR. E. Randall. 1987. Nearshore hypoxia in the bottom water of the northwestern Gulf of Mexico from 1981 to 1984.Marine Environmental Research 22:75–90.

Rabalais, N. N. 1992. An Updated Summary of Status and Trends in Indicators of Nutrient Enrichment in the Gulf of Mexico. Report to Gulf of Mexico Program, Nutrient Enrichment Subcommittee. Publication No. EPA/800-R-92-004, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, Gulf of Mexico Program, Stennis Space Center, Mississippi.

Rabalais, N. N. 2004. Eutrophication, p. 819–865.In A. R. Robinson, J. McCarthy, and B. J. Rothschild (eds.), The Global Coastal Ocean: Multiscale Interdisciplinary Processes, The Sea, Volume 13, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Rabalais, N. N., N. Atilla, C. Normandeau, andR. E. Turner. 2004. Ecosystem history of the Mississippi River-influenced continental shelf revealed through preserved phytoplankton pigments.Marine Pollution Bulletin 49:537–547.

Rabalais, N. N., D. E. Harper Jr., andR. E. Turner. 2001. Responses of nekton and demersal and benthic fauna to decreasing oxygen concentrations, p. 115–128.In N. N. Rabalais and R. E. Turner (eds.), Coastal Hypoxia: Consequences for Living Resources and Ecosystems. Coastal and Estuarine Studies 58, American Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C.

Rabalais, N. N. andR. E. Turner. 2001. Hypoxia in the Northern Gulf of Mexico: Description, causes and change, p. 1–36.In N. N. Rabalais and R. E. Turner (eds.), Coastal Hypoxia: Consequences for Living Resources and Ecosystems. Coastal and Estuarine Studies 58, American Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C.

Rabalais, N. N. andR. E. Turner. 2006. Oxygen depletion in the Gulf of Mexico adjacent to the Mississippi River, p. 222–245.In L. N. Neretin (ed.), Past and Present Marine Water Column Anoxia. NATO Science Series: IV-Earth and Environmental Sciences, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The NetherlWaters.

Rabalais, N. N., R. E. Turner, Q. Dortch, D. Justić, V.J. Bierman, Jr., andW. J. Wiseman Jr. 2002b. Review. Nutrient-enhanced productivity in the northern Gulf of Mexico: Past, present and future.Hydrobiologia 475/476:39–63.

Rabalais, N. N., R. E. Turner, D. JustiĆ, Q .Dortch andW. J. Wiseman Jr. 1999. Characterization of Hypoxia: Topic 1 Report for the Integrated Assessment of Hypoxia in the Gulf of Mexico. NOAA Coastal Ocean Program Decision Analysis Series No. 15. NOAA Coastal Ocean Program, Silver Spring, Maryland.

Rabalais, N. N., R. E. Turner, D. Justić, Q. Dortch, W. J. Wiseman Jr., andB. K. Sen Gupta. 1996. Nutrient changes in the Mississippi River and system responses on the adjacent continental shelf.Estuaries 19:386–407.

Rabalais, N. N., R. E. Turner, D. Justić, Q. Dortch, W. J. Wiseman Jr., andB. K. Sen Gupta. 2000. Gulf of Mexico biological system responses to nutrient changes in the Mississippi River, p. 242–268.In. E. Hobbie (ed.), Estuarine Science: A Synthetic Approach to Research and Practice. Island Press, Washington, D.C.

Rabalais, N.N., R. E. Turner, andD. Scavia. 2002a. Beyond science into policy: Gulf of Mexico hypoxia and the Mississippi River.BioScience 52:129–142.

Rabalais, N. N., R. E. Turner, B. K. Sen Gupta, E. Platon, andM. L. Parsons. 2007. Sediments tell the history of eutrophication and hypoxia in the northern Gulf of Mexico.Ecological Applications 17 Supplement:S129-S143.

Rabalais, N. N., R. E. Turner, andW. J. Wiseman Jr. 2002c. Hypoxia in the Gulf of Mexico, a.k.a. “The Dead Zone.”Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 33:235–263.

Rabalais, N. N., R. E. Turner, W. J. Wiseman Jr., andD. F. Boesch. 1991. A brief summary of hypoxia on the northern Gulf of Mexico continental shelf: 1985–1988, p. 35–47.In R. V. Tyson and T. H. Pearson (eds.), Modern and Ancient Continental Shelf Anoxia, Geological Society Special Publication No. 58, The Geological Society, London, England.

Rabalais, N. N., R. E. Turner, W. J. Jr.Wiseman, andQ. Dortch. 1998. Consequences of the 1993 Mississippi River Flood in the Gulf of Mexico.Regulated Rivers: Research and Management 14: 161–177.

Rabalais, N. N., W. J. Wiseman Jr., andR. E. Turner. 1994. Comparison of continuous records of near-bottom dissolved oxygen from the hypoxia zone along the Louisiana coast.Estuaries 17:850–861.

Reuss, M. 1998. Designing the Bayous: The Control of Water in the Atchafalaya Basin, 1800–1995. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Office of History, Alexandria, Virginia.

Scavia, D., D. Justić, andV. J. Bierman Jr. 2004. Reducing hypoxia in the Gulf of Mexico: Advice from three models.Estuaries 27:419–425.

Scavia, D., N. N. Rabalais, R. E. Turner, D. Justić, andW. J. Wiseman Jr. 2003. Predicting the response of Gulf of Mexico hypoxia to variations in Mississippi River nitrogen load.Limnology and Oceanography 48:951–956.

Sen Gupta, B. K., R. E. Turner, andN. N. Rabalais. 1996. Seasonal oxygen depletion in continental shelf waters of Louisiana: Historical record of benthic foraminifers.Geology 24:227–230.

Smith, S. R. andG. A. Jacobs. 2005. Seasonal circulation fields in the northern Gulf of Mexico calculated by assimilating current meter, shipboard ADCP, and drifter data simultaneously with the shallow water equations.Continental Shelf Research 25:157183.

Stow, C. A., S. S. Qian, andJ. K. Craig. 2005. Declining threshold of hypoxia in the f or mation.Environmental Science and Technology 39:716–723.

Sylvan, J. B., Q. Dortch, D. M. Nelson, A. F. Maier Brown, W. Morrison, andJ. W. Ammerman. 2006. Phosphorus limits phytoplankton growth on the Louisiana shelf during the period of hypoxia formation.Environmental Science and Technology 40: 7548–7553.

Thomas, E., T. Gapotchenko, J. C. Varekamp, E. L. Mecray, andM. R. B ter Brink. 2000. Benthic Foraminifera and environmental changes in Long Island Sound.Journal of Coastal Research 16:641–645.

Tolmazin, R. 1985. Changing coastal oceanography of the Black Sea. I. Northwestern shelf.Progress in Oceanography 15:217–276.

Trefry, J. H., S. Metz, R. P. Trogine, andB. J. Eadie. 1994. Transport of particulate organic carbon by the Mississippi River and its fate in the Gulf of Mexico.Estuaries 17:839–849.

Trenberth, K. 2005. Uncertainty in hurricanes and global warming.Science 308:1753–1754.

Turner, R. E. andR. L. Allen. 1982. Bottom water oxygen concentration in the Mississippi River Delta Bight.Contributions in Marine Science 25:161–172.

Turner, R. E., C. S. Milan, andN. N. Rabalais. 2004. A retrospective analysis of trace metals, C, N and diatom remnants in sediments from the Mississippi River delta shelf.Marine Pollution Bulletin 49:548–556.

Turner, R. E., N. Qureshi, N. N. Rabalais, Q. Dortch, D. Justić, R. F. Shaw, andJ. Cope. 1998. Fluctuating silicate:nitrate ratios and coastal plankton food webs.Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, USA 95:13048–13051.

Turner, R. E. andN. N. Rabalais. 2003. Link in glandscapea River water quality this century. Implications for coastal food webs.BioScience 41:140–148.

Turner, R. E. andN. N. Rabalais. 1994. Coastal eutrophication near the Mississippi river delta.Nature 368:619–621.

Turner, R. E. andN. N. Rabalais. 2003. Linking landscape and water quality in the Mississippi River basin for 200 years.BioScience 53:563–572.

Turner, R. E., N. N. Rabalais, R. B. Alexander, G. McIsaac, andR. W. Howarth. 2007. Characterization of Nutrient, Organic Carbon, and Sediment Loads and Concentrations from the Mississippi River into the Northern Gulf of Mexico.Estuaries and Coasts 30:773–790.

Turner, R. E., N. N. Rabalais, andD. Justić. 2006. Predicting summer hypoxia in the northern Gulf of Mexico: Riverine N, P and Si loading.Marine Pollution Bulletin 52:139–148.

Turner, R. E., N. N. Rabalais, D. Justić, andQ. Dortch. 2003. Global patterns of dissolved N, P and Si in large rivers.Biogeochemistry 64:297–317.

Turner, R. E., N. N. Rabalais, E. M. Swenson, M. Kasprzak, andT. Romaire. 2005. Summer hypoxia in the northern Gulf of Mexico and its prediction from 1978 to 1995.Marine Environmental Research 59:65–77.

Wiseman, Jr., W. J., N. N. Rabalais, R. E. Turner, S. P. Dinnel, andA. MacNaughton. 1997. Seasonal and interannual variability within the Louisiana Coastal Current: Stratification and hypoxia.Journal of Marine Systems 12:237–248.

Wiseman, Jr., W. J., N. N. Rabalais, R. E. Turner, andD. Justić. 2004. Hypoxia and the Physics of the Louisiana Coastal Current, p. 359–273.In. C. J. Nihoul (ed.), Dying and Dead Seas, NATO Advanced Research Workshop, Liége, Belgium: NATO ASI Series, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.

Wolock, D. M. andG. J. McCabe. 1999. Estimates of runoff using water-balance and atmospheric general circulation models.Journal of the American Water Resources Association 35:1341–1350.

Wong, G. T. F. andP. G. Brewer. 1977. The marine chemistry of iodine in anoxic basins.Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 41:151- 85.

Zaitsev, Y. P. 1992. Recent changes in the trophic structure of the Black Sea.Fisheries Oceanography 1:180–189.