Hyperhomocysteinemia and cardiovascular disease: The nutritional perspectives
Tóm tắt
Several members of the vitamin B-complex family are known to participate in the normal metabolism of homocysteine (Hcy). Leaving aside the genetic determinants of hyperhomocysteinemia (HHC), the deficiencies of these vitamins can also result in HHC. The situation of sustained and long standing HHC is likely to be prevalent in population groups with low/average socio-economic status, geriatric population and alcohol abusers. If not corrected by supplementation, these population groups certainly are more vulnerable to develop atherosclerosis (AS) and subsequently, cardiovascular disease (CVD). Hyperhomocysteinemia per se and/or HHC-induced oxidative stress result(s) in chronic chemical endothelial injury/dysfunction, smooth muscle proliferation, prothrombotic state and oxidation of low density lipoproteins (LDL) leading to diverse cardiovascular complications. In the first decade of the new millennium, major research efforts would be directed towards understanding the basic mechanism of HHC-induced oxidative stress and the pathophysiology of HHC-induced CVD, culminating in the evolution of hitherto unknown therapeutic strategies such as nutriceuticals and oxidant-antidotes.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Basha, B.J. and Sowers, J.R. (1995) Atherosclerosis: an update. Amer. Heart J. 131, 1192–1202.
Robinson, K. and Loscalzo, J. (1998) Other risk factors for coronary artery disease: homocysteine, lipoprotein (a), fibrinogen, and plasminogen activator inhibitor. In: Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine, Ed. Topol, E.J. Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia, p 231–247.
Ross, R. and Glomset, J.A. (1973) Atherosclerosis and the arterial smooth muscle cell: proliferation of smooth muscle is a key event in the genesis of the lesions of atherosclerosis. Science 180, 1332–1339.
McCully, K.S. and Wilson, R.B. (1975) Homocysteine theory of arteriosclerosis. Atherosclerosis 22, 215–227.
Genest, J.J. Jr., McNamara, J.R., Salem, D.N., Wilson, P.W.F., Schaefer, E.J. and Malinow, M.R. (1990) Plasma homocyst(e)ine levels in men with premature coronary artery disease. J. Amer. Coll. Cardiol. 16, 1114–1119.
Taylor, L.M. Jr., Defrang, R.D., Harris, E., Jr. and Porter, J.M. (1991) The association of elevated plasma homocyst(e)ine with progression of symptomatic peripheral arterial disease. J. Vasc. Surg. 13, 128–136.
Brattstrom, L., Lindgren, A., Israelsson, B., Malinow, M.R., Norrving, B., Upson, B. and Hamfelt, A (1992) Hyperhomocysteinemia in stroke: prevalence, cause, and relationships to type of stroke and stroke risk factors. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 22, 214–221.
den Heijer, M., Blom, H.J., Gerrits, W.B.J., Rosendaal, F.R., Haak, H.L., Wijermans, P.W. and Bos, G.M.J. (1995) Is hyperhomocysteinemia a risk factor for recurrent venous thrombosis? Lancet 345, 882–885.
Jacobsen, D.W. (1998) Homocysteine and vitamins in cardiovascular disease. Clin. Chem. 44, 1833–1843.
Mills, J.L., McPartlin, J.M., Kirke, P.N., Lee, Y.J., Conley, M.R., Weir, D.G. and Scott, J.M. (1995) Homocysteine metabolism in pregnancies complicated by neural tube defects. Lancet 345, 149–151.
Miller, J.W. (1999) Homocysteine and Alzheimer's disease. Nutr. Rev. 57, 126–129.
Jackson, S.H. (1973) The reaction of homocysteine with aldehyde: an explanation of the collage defects in homocystinuria. Clin. Chim. Acta 45, 215–217.
Williams, K. (1997) Modulation and block of ion channels: a new biology of polyamines. Cell. Signal. 9, 1–13.
Moolenar, S.H., Poggi-Bach, Jo., Engelke, U.F.H., Corstiaensen, J.M.B., Heerschap, A., De Jong, J.G.N., Binzak, B.A., Vockley, J. and Wevers, R.A. (1999) Defect in dimethylglycine dehydrogenase, a new inborn error of metabolism: NMR spectroscopy study. Clin. Chem. 45, 459–464.
Selhub, J. and D'Angelo, A. (1998) Relationship between homocysteine and thrombotic disease. Amer. J. Med. Sci. 316, 129–141.
Sethi, K.K. and Mantri, R.R. (1999) Homocysteine-emerging evidence as an independent risk factor for coronary artery disease (editorial). Cardiol. Today III, 121–129.
Christensen, B., Refsum, H., Vintermyr, O. and Ueland, P.M. (1991) Homocysteine export from cells cultured in the presence of physiological or superfluous levels of methionine: methionine loading of nontransformed, transformed, proliferating, and quiescent cells in culture. J. Cell Biol. 146, 52–62.
Ueland, P.M. (1995) Homocysteine species as components of plasma redox thiol status. Clin. Chem. 41, 340–342.
Mansoor, M.A., Svardal, A.M., Schneede, J. and Ueland, P.M. (1992) Dynamic relation between reduced, oxidized and protein-bound homocysteine and other thiol components in plasma during methionine loading in healthy men. Clin. Chem. 38, 1316–1321.
Elsas, L.J., Longo, N. and Rosenberg, L.E. (1998) Inherited disorders of amino acid metabolism and storage. In: Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, Eds. Fauci, A.S., Braunwald, E., Isselbacher, K.J., Wilson, J.D., Martin, J.B., Kasper, D.L., Hauser, S.L. and Longo, D.L. 14th edn., McGraw-Hill, New York, p. 2194–2203.
Dudman, N.P.B., Wilcken, D.E.L., Wang, J., Lynch, J.F., Macey, D. and Lundberg, P. (1993) Disordered methionine/homocysteine metabolism in premature vascular disease: its occurrence, cofactor therapy, and enzymology. Arterioscler. Thromb. 13, 1253–1260.
Ubbink, J.B., Vermaak, W.J.H., van der Merwe, A. and Becker, P.J. (1993) Vitamin B12, vitamin B6 and folate nutritional status in men with hyperhomocysteinemia. Amer. J. Clin. Nutr. 57, 47–53.
Hultberg, B., Berglund, M., Andersson, A. and Frank, A. (1993) Elevated plasma homocysteine in alcoholics. Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res. 17, 687–689.
Goyette, P., Frosst, P., Rosenblatt, D.S. and Rozen, R. (1995) Seven novel mutations in the methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase gene and genotype/phenotype correlations in severe methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase deficiency. Amer. J. Hum. Genet. 56, 1052–1059.
Rozen, R. (1996) Molecular genetic aspects of hyperhomocysteinemia and its relation to folic acid. Clin. Invest. Med. 19, 171–178.
Scott, J. and Weir, D. (1996) Homocysteine and cardiovascular disease (editorial). Quart. J. Med. 89, 561–563.
Harmon, D.L., Woodside, J.V., Yarnell, J.W.G., McMaster, D., Young, I.S., McCrum, E.E., Gey, K.F., Whitehead, A.S. and Evans, A.E. (1996) The common «thermolabile» variant of methylene tetrahydrofolate reductase is a major determinant of mild hyperhomocysteinemia. Quart. J. Med. 89, 571–577.
Tsai, M.Y., Bignell, M., Schwichtenberg, K. and Hanson, N.Q. (1996) High prevalence of a mutation in the cystathionine β-synthase gene. Amer. J. Hum. Genet. 59, 1262–1267.
Arnadottir, M., Hultberg, B., Vladov, V., Nilsson-Ehle, P. and Thysell, H. (1996) Hyperhomocysteinemia in cyclosporin-treated renal transplant recipients. Transplantation 61, 509–512.
Chen, L.H., Liu, M.L., Hwang, H.Y., Chen, L.S., Korenberg, J and Shane, B. (1997) Human methionine synthase-cDNA cloning, gene localization and expression. J. Biol. Chem. 272, 3628–3634.
Miner, S.E.S., Evrovski, J. and Cole, D.E.C. (1997) Clinical chemistry and molecular biology of homocysteine metabolism: an update. clin. Biochem. 30, 189–201.
Jacobsen, D.W. (1998) Acquired hyperhomocysteinemia in heart transplant recipients (editorial). Clin. Chem. 44, 2238–2239.
Willams, R.H. and Maggiore, J.A. (1999) Hyperhomocysteinemia. Pathogenesis, clinical significance, laboratory assessment and treatment. Lab. Med. 30, 468–475.
Guldenner, C.V., Janssen, J.F.M., De Meer, K., Donker, A.J.M. and Stehouwer, C.D.A. (1999) Effect of folic acid and betaine on fasting and post methionine-loading plasma homocysteine and methionine levels in chronic hemodialysis patients. J. Int. Med. 245, 175–183.
Naito, M., Hayashi, T. and Iguchi, A. (1995) New aproaches to the prevention of atherosclerosis. Drugs 50, 440–453.
Witzhum, J.L. (1994) The oxidation hypothesis of atherosclerosis. Lancet 344, 793–795.
Lal, H., Pandey, R. and Aggarwal, S.K. (1999) Antioxidant vitamins and chemoprevention. Ind. J. Clin. Biochem. 14, 1–11.
Lal, G. Yadav, S.P.S., Aggarwal, S.K., Bansal, S., Chugh, K. and Lal H. (1996) Plasma vitamin E status in head and neck cancers. Ind. J. Clin. Biochem. 11, 46–48.
Abrol, P., Sharma, N. and Lal, H. (1997) Vitamin E status in protein energy malnutrition. Ind. J. Clin. Biochem. 12, 125–127.
Welch, G.N., Upchurch, G.R. and Loscalzo, J. (1997) Homocysteine, oxidative stress, and vascular disease. Hosp. Pract. 32, 81–92.
Hogg, N. (1999) The effect of cyst(e)ine on the auto-oxidation of homocysteine. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 27, 28–33.
Mateos, F., Brock, J.H. and Perez-Arellano, J.L. (1998) Iron metabolism in the lower respiratory tract. Thorax 53, 594–600.
Fakhri, M.E., Aggarwal, S.K., Gayoum, A. and Sheriff, D.S. (1991) Reduced plasma ascorbic acid and red cell glutathione contents in sickle cell disease-a preliminary report. Ind. J. Clin. Biochem. 6, 47–50.
Halliwell, B. (1999) Establishing the significance and optimal intake of dietary antioxidants: the biomarker concept. Nutr. Rev. 57, 104–113.
Lal, H., Chugh, K., Saini, V., Kaur, J. and Saini, A.S. (1992) Effect of ageing on some free radical scavangers and the metabolic consequence in rats. Ind. J. Clin. Biochem. 7, 143–146.
Meidell, R.S. (1994) Southwestern internal medicine conference: endothelial dysfunction and vascular disease. Amer. J. Med. Sci. 307, 378–389.
de Valk-de Roo, G.W., Stehouwer, C.D.A., Lambert, J., Schalkwijk, C.G., van der Mooren, M.J., Kluft, C. and Netelenbos, C. (1999) Plasma homocysteine is weakly correlated with plasma endothelin and von Willebrand factor but not with endothelium-dependent vasodilation in healthy postmenopausal women. Clin. Chem. 45, 1200–1205.
Drexler, H. and Hornig, B. (1999) Endothelial dysfunction in human disease. J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 31, 51–60.
Welch, G.N., Upchurch, G.R., Jr. and Loscalzo, J. (1997) Hyperhomocyst(e)inemia and atherothrombosis. Ann. NY. Acad. Sci. 811, 48–58.
Singh, J., Garg, K.N., Garg, D. and Lal, H. (1988) Effect of adenosine and inosine on experimental myocardial infarction in rats. Ind. J. Exp. Biol. 26, 771–774.
Singh, J. Garg, K.N., Garg, D., Chugh, K. and Lal, H. (1989) Effect of aspartate and glutamate on experimental myocardial infarction in rats. Ind. J. Exp. Biol. 27, 621–624.
Natarajan, V. (1995) Oxidants and signal transduction in vascular endothelium. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 125, 26–37.
Trump, B.F. and Berezesky, I.K. (1995) Calcium-mediated cell injury and cell death. FASEB J. 9, 219–228.
Cushing, S.D. and Fogelman, A.M. (1992) Monocytes may amplify their recruitement into inflammatory lesions by inducing monocyte chemotactic protein. Arterioscler. Thromb. 12, 78–82.
Godfried, S.L. and Deckelbaum, L.I. (1995) Natural antioxidants and restenosis after percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (editorial). Amer. Heart J. 129, 203–210.
Gambhir, D.S. and Gambhir, J.K. (1997) Oxidised low density lipoprotein, antioxidants and coronary atherosclerosis. Ind. Heart J. 49, 19–22.
Heinecke, J.W. (1999) Is lipid peroxidation relevant to atherogenesis? (commentary). J. Clin. Invest. 104, 135–136.
Sata, M. and Walsh, K. (1998) Oxidized LDL activates Fas-mediated endothelial cell apoptosis. J. Clin. Invest. 102, 1682–1689.
Wolf, G. (1999) The role of oxidized low-density lipoprotein in the activation of peroxisome proliferatoractivated receptor γ implications for atherosclerosis. Nutr. Rev. 57, 88–91.
Winder, A.F. (1998) Homocysteine and cardiovascular disease (editorial). J. Clin. Pathol. 51, 713.
Harpel, P., Zhang, X. and Borth, W. (1996) Homocysteine and hemostasis: pathogenetic mechanisms predisposing to thrombosis. J. Nutr. 126 (Suppl), 1285S-1289S.
Guba, S.C., Fink, L.M. and Fonesca, V. (1998) Hyperhomocysteinemia and premature vascular occlusive disease. Amer. J. Med. Sci. 315, 279–285.
Price, D.T. and Loscalzo, J. (1999) Cellular adhesion molecules and atherogenesis. Amer. J. Med. 107, 85–97.
Mix, J.A. (1999) Do megadoses of vitamin C compromise folic acid's role in the metabolism of plasma homocysteine? Nutr. Res. 19, 161–165.
Still, R.A. and McDowell, I.F.W. (1998) Clinical implications of plasma homocysteine measurement in cardiovascular disease. J. Clin. Pathol. 51, 183–188.
Cooke, J.P. (1998) Nutriceuticals for cardiovascular health. Amer. J. Cardiol. 82(Suppl), 43S-46S.