Hydrogen-powered aircraft: Fundamental concepts, key technologies, and environmental impacts

Progress in Aerospace Sciences - Tập 141 - Trang 100922 - 2023
Eytan J. Adler1, Joaquim R.R.A. Martins1
1Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, United States

Tài liệu tham khảo

International Civil Aviation Organization Industry High Level Group, 2019 Rutherford, 2009 Lee, 2021, The contribution of global aviation to anthropogenic climate forcing for 2000 to 2018, Atmos. Environ., 244, 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2020.117834 Sloop, 1978 Silverstein, 1955 Brewer, 1973, The case for hydrogen fueled transport aircraft Brewer, 1976 Brewer, 1975 Brewer, 1978 Klug, 2001, CRYOPLANE: hydrogen fuelled aircraft—status and challenges, Air Space Eur., 3, 252, 10.1016/S1290-0958(01)90110-8 Graver, 2022 U.S Energy Information Administration, 2021 U.S. Department of Transportation, 2023 Stokel-Walker, 2022 Mukhopadhaya, 2022 Brelje, 2019, Electric, hybrid, and turboelectric fixed-wing aircraft: A review of concepts, models, and design approaches, Prog. Aerosp. Sci., 104, 1, 10.1016/j.paerosci.2018.06.004 Çınar, 2022 Girishkumar, 2010, Lithium-air battery: promise and challenges, J. Phys. Chem. Lett., 1, 2193, 10.1021/jz1005384 Imanishi, 2019, Perspectives and challenges of rechargeable lithium-air batteries, Mater. Today Adv., 4 Kang, 2020, Lithium–air batteries: air-breathing challenges and perspective, ACS Nano, 14, 14549, 10.1021/acsnano.0c07907 Graver, 2020, 1 Cabrera, 2022, Use of sustainable fuels in aviation—A review, Energies, 15, 2440, 10.3390/en15072440 Clean Sky 2 Joint Undertaking and Fuel Cells and Hydrogen 2 Joint Undertaking, 2020 Prussi, 2021, CORSIA: The first internationally adopted approach to calculate life-cycle GHG emissions for aviation fuels, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 150, 10.1016/j.rser.2021.111398 Searchinger, 2008, Use of U.S. croplands for biofuels increases greenhouse gases through emissions from land-use change, Science, 319, 1238, 10.1126/science.1151861 Laborde, 2011 Lark, 2022, Environmental outcomes of the US renewable fuel standard, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 119, 10.1073/pnas.2101084119 Schmidt, 2018, Power-to-liquids as renewable fuel option for aviation: A review, Chem. Ing. Tech., 90 Dincer, 2012, Green methods for hydrogen production, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 37, 1954, 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2011.03.173 Ghavam, 2021, Sustainable ammonia production processes, Front. Energy Res., 9, 34, 10.3389/fenrg.2021.580808 Timmons, 2022, Economics of aviation fuel decarbonization: A preliminary assessment, J. Clean. Prod., 10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.133097 Verstraete, 2013, Long range transport aircraft using hydrogen fuel, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 38, 14824, 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.09.021 Davis, 2018, Net-zero emissions energy systems, Science, 360, 10.1126/science.aas9793 Friedmann, 2019 Garmsiri, 2013, Comparisons of automotive, locomotive, aircraft and marine conversion to hydrogen propulsion using six-sigma methodologies, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 38, 2020, 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2012.11.088 Ehrhart, 2019 Taylor, 2022 Sosounov, 1990, Experimental turbofan using liquid hydrogen and liquid natural gas as fuel Boeing, 2008 German Aerospace Center, 2022 AeroVironment, 2010 AeroVironment, 2011 Boeing, 2022 German Aerospace Center, 2016 Harris, 2021 Warwick, 2020 Crownhart, 2023 Norris, 2023 Airbus, 2020 Debney, 2022 The Council of the European Union, 2021 Goldmann, 2018, A study on electrofuels in aviation, Energies, 11, 392, 10.3390/en11020392 Sheffield, 2014, Electricity and hydrogen as energy vectors for transportation vehicles, 117 Møller, 2017, Hydrogen—A sustainable energy carrier, Progress Nat. Sci. Mater. Internat., 27, 34, 10.1016/j.pnsc.2016.12.014 Brewer, 1991 Cryoplane Project, 2003 Verstraete, 2009 Mukhopadhaya, 2022 Nicolai, 2010 Gardiner, 2022 Mills, 2012, Design, fabrication and testing of a liquid hydrogen fuel tank for a long duration aircraft, 773 Kramer, 2020, Hydrogen-powered aircraft may be getting a lift, Phys. Today, 73, 27, 10.1063/PT.3.4632 Toyota, 2019 Mital, 2006 Moody, 1990, Hydrogen effects on material behavior Lee, 2016 Robinson, 2008, Determination of allowable hydrogen permeation rates for launch vehicle propellant tanks, J. Spacecr. Rockets, 45, 82, 10.2514/1.29709 Nash, 2012, Hydrogen storage: Compressed gas, 4, 131, 10.1016/B978-0-08-087872-0.00413-3 Gardiner, 2020 Su, 2021, Review of the hydrogen permeability of the liner material of type IV on-board hydrogen storage tank, World Electr. Veh. J., 12, 130, 10.3390/wevj12030130 Fujiwara, 2021, Hydrogen permeation under high pressure conditions and the destruction of exposed polyethylene-property of polymeric materials for high-pressure hydrogen devices (2)-, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 46, 11832, 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.12.223 Gong, 2017, Fuel cell propulsion in small fixed-wing unmanned aerial vehicles: Current status and research needs, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 42, 21311, 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.06.148 Rivard, 2019, Hydrogen storage for mobility: A review, Materials, 12, 1973, 10.3390/ma12121973 Ge, 2022, Challenges in developing linerless composite gas cylinder for on-board hydrogen storage McLaughlan, 2011 Anthony J. Colozza, Hydrogen Storage for Aircraft, Contractor report NASA/CR—-2002-211867, 2002, URL. Roylance, 1976 Peters, 1991 Hua, 2011, Technical assessment of compressed hydrogen storage tank systems for automotive applications, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 36, 3037, 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.11.090 Hua, 2017, Performance assessment of 700-bar compressed hydrogen storage for light duty fuel cell vehicles, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 42, 25121, 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.08.123 Lemmon, 2008, Revised standardized equation for hydrogen gas densities for fuel consumption applications, J. Res. Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol., 113, 341, 10.6028/jres.113.028 Silberhorn, 2019, Assessment of hydrogen fuel tank integration at aircraft level Pohl, 1997, Hydrogen in future civil aviation, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 22, 1061, 10.1016/S0360-3199(95)00140-9 Millis, 2009 Fesmire, 2012, Spray-on foam insulations for launch vehicle cryogenic tanks, Cryogenics, 52, 251, 10.1016/j.cryogenics.2012.01.018 National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 2004 Verstraete, 2010, Hydrogen fuel tanks for subsonic transport aircraft, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 35, 11085, 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.06.060 Marquardt, 2015, An overview of Ball Aerospace cryogen storage and delivery systems Airbus, 2021 Huete, 2021, Parametric study on tank integration for hydrogen civil aviation propulsion, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 46, 37049, 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.08.194 Gary Mills, A Comparison of Liquid Hydrogen Tanks for Aircraft, in: Presented at the 2021 AIAA Electric Aircraft Technologies Symposium, 2021. Sullivan, 2006 CGA, 2019 Qiu, 2021, Research progress of cryogenic materials for storage and transportation of liquid hydrogen, Metals, 11, 1101, 10.3390/met11071101 Heydenreich, 1998, Cryotanks in future vehicles, Cryogenics, 38, 125, 10.1016/S0011-2275(97)00122-7 Robinson, 2002, Hydrogen permeability requirements and testing for reusable launch vehicle tanks, 10.2514/6.2002-1418 Boeing, 2022 Brewer, 1975 Onorato, 2021 Onorato, 2022, Assessment of hydrogen transport aircraft, CEAS Aeronaut. J., 13, 10.1007/s13272-022-00601-6 Brooks McKinney and Tory Neiwert, 2004 Gardiner, 2023 Letchworth, 2011, X-33 reusable launch vehicle demonstrator, spaceport and range, 7314 Mendez Ramos, 2021 Estey, 1983, Prediction of a propellant tank pressure history using state space methods, J. Spacecr. Rockets, 20, 49, 10.2514/3.28355 Ring, 1964, 211 Chen, 2012, Hydrogen storage: Liquid and chemical, 157, 10.1016/B978-0-08-087872-0.00414-5 Brand, 2003, Potential use of hydrogen in air propulsion Hemmerdinger, 2021 DelRosario, 2014 O’Hayre, 2016, 10.1002/9781119191766 Troeltsch, 2020, Hydrogen powered long haul aircraft with minimized climate impact Seitz, 2022, Initial assessment of a fuel cell-gas turbine hybrid propulsion concept, Aerospace, 9, 68, 10.3390/aerospace9020068 Svensson, 2005 Chandel, 2021, Conceptual design of distributed electrified boundary layer ingesting propulsors for the CHEETA aircraft concept White, 2022, System-level utilization of low-grade, MW-scale thermal loads for electric aircraft European Union Aviation Safety Agency, 2023 Roskam, 1989 Wells, 2017 Airbus, 2022 Pratt & Whitney, 2022 Rolls-Royce, 2022 Khandelwal, 2013, Hydrogen powered aircraft: The future of air transport, Prog. Aerosp. Sci., 60, 45, 10.1016/j.paerosci.2012.12.002 Marek, 2005, Low emission hydrogen combustors for gas turbines using lean direct injection Dahl, 1998, Engine control and low-NOx combustion for hydrogen fuelled aircraft gas turbines, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 23, 695, 10.1016/S0360-3199(97)00115-8 Corchero, 2005, An approach to the use of hydrogen for commercial aircraft engines, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. G, 219, 35, 10.1243/095441005X9139 Boggia, 2002, Some unconventional aero gas turbines using hydrogen fuel, 683 Abedi, 2022, Preliminary analysis of compression system integrated heat management concepts using LH2-based parametric gas turbine model, Aerospace, 9, 216, 10.3390/aerospace9040216 Sheath, 2022 Maniaci, 2008, Relative performance of a liquid hydrogen-fueled commercial transport German Aerospace Center, 2015 ZeroAvia, 2022 Spencer, 2013 Larminie, 2003 Laurencelle, 2001, Characterization of a Ballard MK5-E proton exchange membrane fuel cell stack, Fuel Cells, 1, 66, 10.1002/1615-6854(200105)1:1<66::AID-FUCE66>3.0.CO;2-3 Kim, 1995, Modeling of proton exchange membrane fuel cell performance with an empirical equation, J. Electrochem. Soc., 142, 2670, 10.1149/1.2050072 Wilberforce, 2022, Recovery of waste heat from proton exchange membrane fuel cells—A review, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.08.069 Baroutaji, 2021, Advancements and prospects of thermal management and waste heat recovery of PEMFC, Int. J. Thermofluids, 9, 10.1016/j.ijft.2021.100064 Kösters, 2022, Comparison of phase-change-heat-pump cooling and liquid cooling for PEM fuel cells for MW-level aviation propulsion, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.06.235 Schröder, 2021, Optimal operating conditions of PEM fuel cells in commercial aircraft, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 46, 33218, 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.07.099 Fan, 2021, Recent development of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies: A review, Energy Rep., 7, 8421, 10.1016/j.egyr.2021.08.003 Mokmeli, 2010, An investigation into the effect of anode purging on the fuel cell performance, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 35, 9276, 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.03.079 Chen, 2013, Optimization of purge cycle for dead-ended anode fuel cell operation, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 38, 5092, 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.02.022 Valdés-López, 2020, Carbon monoxide poisoning and mitigation strategies for polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells—A review, Prog. Energy Combust. Sci., 79, 10.1016/j.pecs.2020.100842 Bradley, 2011 U.S. Department of Energy Fuel Cell Technologies Office, 2015 Azizi, 2018, Progress in solid oxide fuel cell-gas turbine hybrid power systems: System design and analysis, transient operation, controls and optimization, Appl. Energy, 215, 237, 10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.01.098 Kadyk, 2018, Analysis and design of fuel cell systems for aviation, Energies, 11, 375, 10.3390/en11020375 Waddington, 2021, Impact of LH2 fuel cell-electric propulsion on aircraft configuration and integration Smith, 2021 Romeo, 2013, ENFICA-FC: Design of transport aircraft powered by fuel cell and flight test of zero emission 2-seater aircraft powered by fuel cells fueled by hydrogen, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 38, 469, 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2012.09.064 Collins, 2020, All-electric commercial aviation with solid oxide fuel cell-gas turbine-battery hybrids, Appl. Energy, 265, 10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.114787 Stautner, 2022, CHEETA: An all-electric aircraft takes cryogenics and superconductivity on board: Combatting climate change, IEEE Electrif. Mag., 10, 34, 10.1109/MELE.2022.3165948 Bhatti, 2022 Wang, 2020, Materials, technological status, and fundamentals of PEM fuel cells – a review, Mater. Today, 32, 178, 10.1016/j.mattod.2019.06.005 Wang, 2015, Barriers of scaling-up fuel cells: Cost, durability and reliability, Energy, 80, 509, 10.1016/j.energy.2014.12.007 Baroutaji, 2019, Comprehensive investigation on hydrogen and fuel cell technology in the aviation and aerospace sectors, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 106, 31, 10.1016/j.rser.2019.02.022 Yoshida, 2015, Toyota MIRAI fuel cell vehicle and progress toward a future hydrogen society, Electrochem. Soc. Interf., 24, 45, 10.1149/2.F03152if Webber, 2022 HyPoint Inc, 2021 H2FLY, 2021 ZeroAvia, 2022 ZeroAvia, 2021 ZeroAvia, 2021 Wire, 2022 German Aerospace Center, 2021 Bradley, 2022, Identification and descriptions of fuel cell architectures for aircraft applications, 1047 Bradley, 2012 Burger, 2022 Hoidis, 2020, A creative drive for the future of flight – bringing e-mobility to the sky requires whole-system thinking, DLRmagazine, 16 Airbus, 2021 Boer, 2022, Development of a liquid hydrogen-based fuel cell system for the HYDRA-2 drone Stroman, 2014, Liquid hydrogen fuel system design and demonstration in a small long endurance air vehicle, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 39, 11279, 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2014.05.065 Turner, 2022 Bray, 2022 Ansell, 2022, Hydrogen-electric aircraft technologies and integration: Enabling an environmentally sustainable aviation future, IEEE Electrif. Mag., 10, 6, 10.1109/MELE.2022.3165721 Rompokos, 2021, Synergistic technology combinations for future commercial aircraft using liquid hydrogen, J. Eng. Gas Turb. Power, 143, 10.1115/1.4049694 Wakayama, 1998, Multidisciplinary design optimization of the blended-wing-body Liebeck, 2004, Design of the blended wing body subsonic transport, J. Aircr., 41, 10, 10.2514/1.9084 Lyu, 2014, Aerodynamic design optimization studies of a blended-wing-body aircraft, J. Aircr., 51, 1604, 10.2514/1.C032491 Guynn, 2004 Victor Li, Alex Velicki, Advanced PRSEUS Structural Concept Design and Optimization, in: Proceedings of the 12th AIAA/ISSMO Multidisciplinary Analysis and Optimization Conference, Victoria, BC, 2008, AIAA 2008-5840. Dawn C. Jegley, Experimental Behavior of Fatigued Single Stiffener PRSEUS Specimens, Technical Report NASA/TM-2009-215955, 2009. Jegley, 2010, Influence of impact damage on carbon-epoxy stiffener crippling Hoelzen, 2022, Hydrogen-powered aviation and its reliance on green hydrogen infrastructure—Review and research gaps, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 47, 3108, 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.10.239 Janić, 2014, Greening commercial air transportation by using liquid hydrogen (LH2) as a fuel, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 39, 16426, 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2014.08.011 Brewer, 1982, The prospects for liquid hydrogen fueled aircraft, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 7, 21, 10.1016/0360-3199(82)90205-1 G.W. Hanks, D.G. Andrews, O.B. Brende, E.E. Eckert, M. Hamamoto, R.H. Kimble, R.L. Kreitinger, H.J. Miyatake, A.M. Momenthy, R.A. Taylor, R. Cramer, J.E. West, An exploratory study to determine the integrated technological air transportation system ground requirements of liquid-hydrogen-fueled subsonic, long-haul civil air transports, Contractor report NASA/CR–2699, 1976, URL. Sefain, 2005 Avions de Transport Regional, 2001 Peterson, 2020 International Energy Agency, 2019 Hoelzen, 2022, H2-powered aviation at airports—Design and economics of LH2 refueling systems, Energy Convers. Manag. X, 14, 10.1016/j.ecmx.2022.100206 National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2022 Ginsberg, 2022, Minimizing the cost of hydrogen production through dynamic polymer electrolyte membrane electrolyzer operation, Cell Rep. Phys. Sci., 3, 10.1016/j.xcrp.2022.100935 Scolaro, 2022, Optimizing hybrid offshore wind farms for cost-competitive hydrogen production in Germany, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 47, 6478, 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.12.062 Schrotenboer, 2022, A green hydrogen energy system: Optimal control strategies for integrated hydrogen storage and power generation with wind energy, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 168, 10.1016/j.rser.2022.112744 Mayyas, 2019 Badgett, 2022, Chapter 10—Economic considerations for hydrogen production with a focus on polymer electrolyte membrane electrolysis, 327, 10.1016/B978-0-12-819424-9.00005-7 U.S. Department of Energy, 2021 Zhou, 2022 European Commission, 2022 Brunner, 2017 Postma-Kurlanc, 2022 Holborn, 2022, Modelling studies of the hazards posed by liquid hydrogen use in civil aviation, IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng., 1226, 10.1088/1757-899X/1226/1/012059 Abohamzeh, 2021, Review of hydrogen safety during storage, transmission, and applications processes, J. Loss Prev. Process Ind., 72, 10.1016/j.jlp.2021.104569 R.K. Nangia, L. Hyde, Arriving at Certifiable Novel Airliner Using Liquid Hydrogen and Efficiency Metrics, in: 33rd Congress of the International Council of the Aeronautical Sciences, Stockholm, Sweden, 2022,. Committee, 2017 Allen, 2017 Allen, 2016, New use of global warming potentials to compare cumulative and short-lived climate pollutants, Nature Clim. Change, 6, 773, 10.1038/nclimate2998 Hodges, 2022, A high-performance capillary-fed electrolysis cell promises more cost-competitive renewable hydrogen, Nature Commun., 13, 1304, 10.1038/s41467-022-28953-x Bermudez, 2022 Antonini, 2020, Hydrogen production from natural gas and biomethane with carbon capture and storage—A techno-environmental analysis, Sustain. Energy Fuels, 4, 2967, 10.1039/D0SE00222D Bauer, 2022, On the climate impacts of blue hydrogen production, Sustain. Energy Fuels, 6, 66, 10.1039/D1SE01508G Howarth, 2021, How green is blue hydrogen?, Energy Sci. Eng., 9, 1676, 10.1002/ese3.956 Derwent, 2006, Global environmental impacts of the hydrogen economy, Int. J. Nucl. Hydrogen Prod. Appl., 1, 57 Derwent, 2020, Global modelling studies of hydrogen and its isotopomers using STOCHEM-CRI: Likely radiative forcing consequences of a future hydrogen economy, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 45, 9211, 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.01.125 Warwick, 2022 Cooper, 2022, Hydrogen emissions from the hydrogen value chain-emissions profile and impact to global warming, Sci. Total Environ., 830, 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154624 Ehhalt, 2009, The tropospheric cycle of H2: a critical review, Tellus B: Chem. Phys. Meteorol., 61, 500, 10.1111/j.1600-0889.2009.00416.x Thomas, 2006 Giddey, 2017, Ammonia as a renewable energy transportation media, ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng., 5, 10231, 10.1021/acssuschemeng.7b02219 Galloway, 2003, The nitrogen cascade, BioScience, 53, 341, 10.1641/0006-3568(2003)053[0341:TNC]2.0.CO;2 Bauer, 2016, Significant atmospheric aerosol pollution caused by world food cultivation, Geophys. Res. Lett., 43, 5394, 10.1002/2016GL068354 IPCC, 2021, Summary for policymakers, 3 Proesmans, 2022, Comparison of future aviation fuels to minimize the climate impact of commercial aircraft Fahey, 2016, Aviation and climate change: A scientific perspective aviation and the impacts of climate change, Carbon Climate Law Rev., 2016, 97 Burkhardt, 2011, Global radiative forcing from contrail cirrus, Nature Clim. Change, 1, 54, 10.1038/nclimate1068 Sanz-Morère, 2020, Reducing uncertainty in contrail radiative forcing resulting from uncertainty in ice crystal properties, Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett., 7, 371, 10.1021/acs.estlett.0c00150 Schmidt, 1941, Die entstehung von eisnebel aus den auspuffgasen von flugmotoren, Schriften Der Deutschen Akademie Der Luftfahrtforschung, 5, 1 Appleman, 1953, The formation of exhaust condensation trails by jet aircraft, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 34, 14, 10.1175/1520-0477-34.1.14 Schumann, 1996, On conditions for contrail formation from aircraft exhausts, Meteorol. Z., 5, 4, 10.1127/metz/5/1996/4 Schumann, 2015, Dehydration effects from contrails in a coupled contrail—climate model, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 15, 11179, 10.5194/acp-15-11179-2015 1996 2001 Boucher, 1999, Air traffic may increase cirrus cloudiness, Nature, 397, 30, 10.1038/16169 Fahey, 1999, Aviation-produced aerosols and cloudiness Smith, 1998, Infrared spectral absorption of nearly invisible cirrus clouds, Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 1137, 10.1029/97GL03491 Forster, 2021, The earth’s energy budget, climate feedbacks, and climate sensitivity, 923 Agarwal, 2022, Reanalysis-driven simulations may overestimate persistent contrail formation by 100%–250%, Environ. Res. Lett., 17, 10.1088/1748-9326/ac38d9 Heymsfield, 2010, Contrail microphysics, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 91, 465, 10.1175/2009BAMS2839.1 Zhou, 2014, Aircraft soot indirect effect on large-scale cirrus clouds: Is the indirect forcing by aircraft soot positive or negative?, J. Geophys. Res.: Atmos., 119, 11303, 10.1002/2014JD021914 Bock, 2019, Contrail cirrus radiative forcing for future air traffic, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 19, 8163, 10.5194/acp-19-8163-2019 Burkhardt, 2018, Mitigating the contrail cirrus climate impact by reducing aircraft soot number emissions, Npj Climate Atmosph. Sci., 1, 1 Voigt, 2021, Cleaner burning aviation fuels can reduce contrail cloudiness, Commun. Earth Environ., 2, 1 Ponater, 2006, Potential of the cryoplane technology to reduce aircraft climate impact: A state-of-the-art assessment, Atmos. Environ., 40, 6928, 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.06.036 Gierens, 2021, Theory of contrail formation for fuel cells, Aerospace, 8, 164, 10.3390/aerospace8060164 Bellamy, 2020 Banavar Sridhar, Neil Y. Chen, Hok K. Ng, Energy Efficient Contrail Mitigation Strategies for Reducing the Environmental Impact of Aviation, in: Proceedings of the 10th USA/Europe Air Traffc Management Research and Development Seminar, 212, Chicago, Illinois, USA, 2013,. Voigt, 2017, ML-CIRRUS: The airborne experiment on natural cirrus and contrail cirrus with the high-altitude long-range research aircraft HALO, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 98, 271, 10.1175/BAMS-D-15-00213.1 Airbus, 2022