How Do Risk Factors Work Together? Mediators, Moderators, and Independent, Overlapping, and Proxy Risk Factors

Finney DJ: On biometric language and its abuses. Biometric Bull 1994; 11:2–4

Kraemer H, Kazdin A, Offord D, Kessler R, Jensen P, Kupfer D: Coming to terms with the terms of risk. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1997; 54:337–343

Kraemer HC, Yesavage JA, Taylor JL, Kupfer D: How can we learn about developmental processes from cross-sectional studies, or can we? Am J Psychiatry 2000; 157:163–171

Kraemer HC, Kazdin AE, Offord DR, Kessler RC, Jensen PS, Kupfer DJ: Measuring the potency of a risk factor for clinical or policy significance. Psychol Methods 1999; 4:257–271

Baron RM, Kenny DA: The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. J Pers Soc Psychol 1986; 51:1173–1182

Chaplin WF: The next generation of moderator research in personality psychology. J Pers 1991; 59:143–178

Holmbeck GN: Toward terminological, conceptual, and statistical clarity in the study of mediators and moderators: examples from the child-clinical and pediatric psychology literatures. J Consult Clin Psychol 1997; 65:599–610

Rogosch F, Chassin L, Sher KJ: Personality variables as mediators and moderators of family history risk for alcoholism: conceptual and methodological issues. J Stud Alcohol 1990; 51:310–318

Sigall H, Mills J: Measures of independent variables and mediators are useful in social psychology experiments: but are they necessary? Pers Soc Psychol Rev 1998; 2:218–226

Bebbington P: Causal models and logical inference in epidemiological psychiatry. Br J Psychiatry 1980; 136:317–325

Holland PW: Statistics and causal inference. J Am Statistical Assoc 1986; 81:945–970

Rogosa D: Casual models do not support scientific conclusions: a comment in support of Freedman. J Educational Statistics 1987; 12:185–195

Rosenbaum PR: From association to causation in observational studies: the role of tests of strongly ignorable treatment assignment. J Am Statistical Assoc 1984; 79:41–48

Rubin DB: Estimating causal effects of treatments in randomized and nonrandomized studies. J Educ Psychol 1974; 66:688–701

Abelson RP: On the surprising longevity of flogged horses: why there is a case for the significance test. Psychol Sci 1997; 8:12–15

Cohen J: The earth is round (p<0.05). Am Psychol 1995; 49:997–1003

Dar R, Serlin RC, Omer H: Misuse of statistical tests in three decades of psychotherapy research. J Consult Clin Res 1994; 62:75–82

Goodman SN: p values, hypothesis tests, and likelihood: implications for epidemiology of a neglected historical debate. Am J Epidemiol 1993; 137:485–496

Hunter JE: Needed: a ban on the significance test. Psychol Sci 1997; 8:3–7

Schmidt FL: Statistical significance testing and cumulative knowledge in psychology: implications for training of researchers. Psychol Methods 1996; 1:115–129

Shrout PE: Should significance tests be banned? introduction to a special section exploring the pros and cons. Psychol Sci 1997; 8:1–2

Bross I: Misclassification in 2×2 tables. Biometrics 1954; 10:478–486

Copeland KT, Checkoway H, McMichael AJ, Holbrook RH: Bias due to misclassification in the estimation of relative risk. Am J Epidemiol 1977; 105:488–495

Diamond EL, Lilienfeld AM: Effects of errors in classification and diagnosis in various types of epidemiological studies. Am J Public Health 1962; 52:1137–1144

Goldberg JD: The effects of misclassification on the bias in the difference between two proportions and the relative odds in the fourfold table. J Am Statistical Assoc 1975; 70:561–567

Gullen WH, Bearman JE, Johnson EA: Effects of misclassification in epidemiologic studies. Public Health Rep 1968; 83:914–918

Kraemer HC: The robustness of common measures of 2×2 association to resist bias due to misclassifications. Am Statistician 1985; 39:286–290

Quade D, Lachenbruch PA, Whaley FS, McClish DK, Haley RW: Effects of misclassifications on statistical inferences in epidemiology. Am J Epidemiol 1980; 111:503–515

Dodge KS, Pettit GS, Bates JE: Socialization mediators of the relation between socioeconomic status and child conduct problems. Child Dev 1994; 65:649–655

Lipman EL, Offord DR, Boyle MH: Relation between economic disadvantage and psychosocial morbidity in children. Can Med Assoc J 1994; 151:431–437

Brown W: Some experimental results in the correlation of mental abilities. Br J Psychol 1910; 3:296–322

Spearman C: Correlation calculated from faulty data. Br J Psychol 1910; 3:271–295

Hayward C, Killen JD, Wilson DM, Hammer LD, Litt IF, Kraemer HC, Haydel F, Varady A, Taylor CB: Psychiatric risk associated with early puberty in adolescent girls. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry 1997; 36:255–262

Ellenbroek BA, Cools AR: The long-term effects of maternal deprivation depend on the genetic background. Neuropsychopharmacology 2000; 23:99–106

Smeraldi E, Zanardi R, Benedetti F, DiBella D, Perez J, Catalano M: Polymorphism within the promoter of the serotonin transporter gene and antidepressant efficacy of fluvoxamine. Mol Psychiatry 1998; 3:508–511

Cohen J: The cost of dichotomization. Applied Psychol Measurement 1983; 7:249–253

Kraemer HC: To increase power without increasing sample size. Psychopharmacol Bull 1991; 27:217–224

MTA Cooperative Group: A 14-month randomized clinical trial of treatment strategies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: multimodal treatment study of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999; 56:1073–1086

Moderators and mediators of treatment response for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: the multimodal treatment study of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999; 56:1088–1096

Poderycki MJ, Simoes JM, Todorova MA, Neumann PE, Seyfried TN: Environmental influences on epilepsy gene mapping in EL mice. J Neurogenet 1998; 12:67–85

Lewontin RC: The analysis of variance and the analysis of causes. Am J Hum Genet 1974; 26:400–411

Lewontin RC: Genetic aspects of intelligence. Annu Rev Genet 1975; 9:387–405