Homocysteinemia as a Risk Factor for Atherosclerosis: A Review

Gordon, 1974, Differences in coronary heart disease in Framingham, Honolulu, and Puerto Rico, J Chronic Dis, 27, 329, 10.1016/0021-9681(74)90013-7 McCully, 1990, Atherosclerosis, serum cholesterol and the homocysteine theory, Am J Med Sci, 299, 217, 10.1097/00000441-199004000-00001 Selhub, 1992, The pathogenesis of homocysteinemia, Am J Clin Nutr, 55, 131, 10.1093/ajcn/55.1.131 Carson, 1962, Metabolic abnormalities detected in s survey of mentally backward individuals in Northern Ireland, Arch Dis Child, 31, 653 Gerritsent, 1962, The identification of homocysteine in the urine, Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 9, 493, 10.1016/0006-291X(62)90114-6 Mudd, 1985, The natural history of homocystinuria due to cystathionine β-synthase deficiency, Am J Hum Genet, 37, 1 Mudd, 1964, Homocystinuria, Science, 143, 1443, 10.1126/science.143.3613.1443 Hu, 1993, Molecular basis of cystathionine β-synthase deficiency in pyridoxine responsive and nonresponsive homocystinuria, Hum Mol Genet, 2, 1857, 10.1093/hmg/2.11.1857 McCully, 1969, Vascular pathology of homocysteinemia, Am J Pathol, 56, 111 Mudd, 1972, Homocystinuria associated with decreased methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase activity, Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 46, 905, 10.1016/S0006-291X(72)80227-4 Harker, 1974, Homocysteinemia, N Engl J Med, 291, 537, 10.1056/NEJM197409122911101 Harker, 1976, Homocystine-induced arteriosclerosis, J Clin Invest, 16, 731, 10.1172/JCI108520 Hladovec, 1979, Experimental homocystinemia, endothelial lesions and thrombosis, Blood Vessels, 16, 202 Perry, 1967, Sulfur containing amino acids in the plasma and urine of homocystinurics, Clin Chim Acta, 15, 409, 10.1016/0009-8981(67)90005-8 Malloy, 1981, Plasma cysteine in homocysteinemia, Am J Clin Nutr, 34, 2619, 10.1093/ajcn/34.12.2619 Schneider, 1968, Identification and measurement of cysteine-homocysteine mixed disulfide in plasma, J Lab Clin Med, 71, 122 Gupta, 1978, The detection of cysteine-homocysteine mixed disulfide in plasma of normal fasting man, Eur J Clin Invest, 8, 205, 10.1111/j.1365-2362.1978.tb00853.x Wilcken, 1976, The pathogenesis of coronary artery disease, J Clin Invest, 57, 1079, 10.1172/JCI108350 Boers, 1985, Heterozygosity for homocystinuria in premature peripheral and cerebral occlusive arterial disease, N Engl J Med, 313, 709, 10.1056/NEJM198509193131201 Taylor, 1993, Elevated plasma homocysteine as a risk factor for atherosclerosis, Semin Vasc Surg, 6, 36 Kang, 1986, Protein-bound homocyst(e)ine, J Clin Invest, 77, 1482, 10.1172/JCI112461 Malinow, 1989, Prevalence of hyperhomocyst(e)inemia in patients with peripheral arterial occlusive disease, Circulation, 79, 1180, 10.1161/01.CIR.79.6.1180 Smolin, 1988, Measurement of total plasma cysteamine using high-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection, Anal Biochem, 168, 374, 10.1016/0003-2697(88)90332-6 Brattstrom, 1986, Heterozygosity for homocystinuria in premature arterial disease, N Engl J Med, 314, 849, 10.1056/NEJM198603273141313 Cronwell, 1993, Modification of a high-performance liquid chromatographic method for assay of homocysteine in human plasma, J Chromatogr, 617, 136, 10.1016/0378-4347(93)80432-4 Andersson, 1993, Homocysteine and other thiols determined in plasma by HPLC and thiol-specific postcolumn derivatization, Clin Chem, 39, 1590, 10.1093/clinchem/39.8.1590 Fiskerstrand, 1993, Homocysteine and other thiols in plasma and urine, Clin Chem, 39, 263, 10.1093/clinchem/39.2.263 Stabler, 1987, Quantification of total homocysteine, total cysteine, and methionine in normal serum and urine using capillary gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, Anal Biochem, 162, 185, 10.1016/0003-2697(87)90026-1 Refsum, 1985, Radioenzymic determinations of homocysteine in plasma and urine, Clin Chem, 31, 624, 10.1093/clinchem/31.4.624 Jacobsen, 1994, Rapid determination of total homocysteine and other thiols in serum and plasma, Clin Chem, 40, 873, 10.1093/clinchem/40.6.873 Evroski, 1995, Determination of homocysteine by HPLC with pulsed integrated amperometry, Clin Chem, 41, 757, 10.1093/clinchem/41.5.757 Jacobsen, 1989, Determination of plasma homocysteine by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection, Anal Biochem, 178, 208, 10.1016/0003-2697(89)90381-3 Araki, 1993, Plasma homocysteine concentrations in Japanese patients with non-insulin diabetes mellitus, Atherosclerosis, 103, 149, 10.1016/0021-9150(93)90258-V Brattstrom, 1992, Hyperhomocysteinemia in stroke, Eur J Clin Invest, 22, 214 Reed, 1991, Estimates of heritability of plasma homocyst(e)ine levels in aging adult male twins, Clin Genetics, 39, 425, 10.1111/j.1399-0004.1991.tb03053.x Kang, 1987, Homocysteinemia due to folate deficiency, Metabolism, 36, 458, 10.1016/0026-0495(87)90043-6 Smolin, 1983, Homocyst(e)ine accumulation in pigs fed diets deficient in vitamin B6, J Nutr, 133, 2022, 10.1093/jn/113.10.2022 Brattstrom, 1988, Higher total plasma homocysteine in vitamin B12 deficiency than in heterozygosity for homocystinuria due to cystathionine B-synthase deficiency, Metabolism, 37, 175, 10.1016/S0026-0495(98)90014-2 Joosten, 1979, Cobalamin absorption and serum homocysteine and methylmalonic acid in elderly subjects with low serum cobalamin, Eur J Clin Invest, 9, 301 Mason, 1992, The effects of vitamin B12, B6, and folate on blood homocysteine levels, Ann NY Acad Sci, 669, 197, 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1992.tb17100.x Selhub, 1993, Vitamin status and intake as primary determinants of homocysteinemia in an elderly population, JAMA, 270, 2693, 10.1001/jama.1993.03510220049033 Wilcken, 1979, Sulfur containing amino acids in chronic renal failure with particular reference to homocysteine mixed disulphide, Eur J Clin Invest, 9, 301, 10.1111/j.1365-2362.1979.tb00888.x Kang, 1983, Plasma protein-bound homocyst(e)ine in patients requiring chronic haemodialysis, Clin Sci, 65, 335, 10.1042/cs0650335 Chauveau, 1992, Increased plasma homocysteine concentration in patients with chronic renal failure, Miner Electrolyte Metab, 18, 196 Hultberg, 1993, Plasma homocysteine in renal failure, Clin Nephrol, 40, 230 Coull, 1990, Elevated plasma homocyst(e)ine concentration as a possible independent risk factor for stroke, Stroke, 21, 572, 10.1161/01.STR.21.4.572 Taylor, 1991, The association of elevated plasma homocyst(e)ine with progression of symptomatic peripheral arterial disease, J Vasc Surg, 13, 128, 10.1016/0741-5214(91)90020-U Parfrey, 1994, Long term cardiac morbidity during dialysis therapy, Adv Nephrol, 23, 311 Van der Mooren, 1994, Hormone replacement therapy may reduce high serum homocysteine in postmenopausal women, Eur J Clin Invest, 24, 733, 10.1111/j.1365-2362.1994.tb01069.x Kang, 1986, Preliminary report, Metabolism, 35, 891 Andersson, 1992, Decreased serum homocysteine in pregnancy, Eur J Clin Chem Clin Biochem, 30, 377 Malinow, 1995, Role of blood pressure, uric acid, and hemorheological parameters on plasma homocyst(e)ine concentration, Atherosclerosis, 114, 175, 10.1016/0021-9150(94)05481-W Levenson, 1994, Increased plasma homocyst(e)ine levels in human hypertension, J Hypertens, 12, S74 Kang, 1986, Protein-bound homocysteine, J Clin Invest, 77, 1482, 10.1172/JCI112461 Israelsson, 1988, Homocysteine and myocardial infarction, Atherosclerosis, 71, 227, 10.1016/0021-9150(88)90147-5 Boers, 1985, Heterozygosity for homocystinuria in premature peripheral and cerebral occlusive arterial disease, N Engl J Med, 313, 709, 10.1056/NEJM198509193131201 Malinow, 1990, Homocyst(e)inemia in daily practice, Cor Art Dis, 1, 215, 10.1097/00019501-199003000-00010 Molgaard, 1992, Hyperhomocyst(e)inemia, J Int Med, 231, 273 Genest, 1991, Prevalence of familial hyperhomocyst(e)inemia in men with premature coronary artery disease, Arteriosclerosis Thromb, 11, 1129, 10.1161/01.ATV.11.5.1129 Araki, 1989, Plasma sulfhydryl-containing amino acids in patients with cerebral infarction and in hypertensive patients, Atherosclerosis, 79, 139, 10.1016/0021-9150(89)90118-4 Wu, 1994, Plasma homocyst(e)ine as a risk factor for early familial coronary artery disease, Clin Chem, 40, 552, 10.1093/clinchem/40.4.552 Lewis, 1992, Plasma folate adequacy as determined by homocysteine level, Ann NY Acad Sci, 669, 360, 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1992.tb17123.x Selhub, 1993, Vitamin status and intake as primary determinants of homocysteinemia in an elderly population, JAMA, 270, 2693, 10.1001/jama.1993.03510220049033 Kang, 1992, Hyperhomocyst(e)inemia as a risk factor for occlusive vascular disease, Annu Rev Nutr, 12, 279, 10.1146/annurev.nu.12.070192.001431 Andersson, 1992, Plasma homocyst(e)ine before and after methionine loading with regard to age, gender, and menopausal status, Eur J Clin Invest, 22, 79, 10.1111/j.1365-2362.1992.tb01940.x Kang, 1991, Intermediate hyperhomocysteinemia from compound heterozygosity of methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase mutations, Am J Hum Genet, 48, 546 Mudd, 1995, Disorders of transsulfuration, 1279 Sartorio, 1986, Protein-bound plasma homocyst(e)ine and identification of heterozygotes for cystathionine synthase deficiency, J Inherited Metab Dis, 9, 25, 10.1007/BF01813897 Kang, 1991, Thermolabile methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase, Am J Hum Genet, 48, 536 Frosst, 1995, A candidate genetic risk factor for vascular disease, Nature Genet, 10, 111, 10.1038/ng0595-111 Malinow, 1993, Carotid artery intimal-medial wall thickening and plasma homocyst(e)ine in asymptomatic adults, Circulation, 87, 1107, 10.1161/01.CIR.87.4.1107 Stampfer, 1992, A prospective study of plasma homocyst(e)ine and the risk of myocardial infarction in US physicians, JAMA, 268, 877, 10.1001/jama.1992.03490070059042 Lee RW, Nehler MR, Moneta GL, Taylor LM Jr, Porter JM. Serum homocysteine and atherosclerosis progression: methods, patient characteristics, and progress (manuscript in progress). McCully, 1969, Vascular pathology of homocysteinemia, Am J Pathol, 56, 111 McCully, 1990, Homocysteine and lipid metabolism in atherogenesis, Atherosclerosis, 83, 197, 10.1016/0021-9150(90)90165-F McCully, 1983, In, Atherosclerosis Reviews. New York, 11, 157 Ueland, 1989, Plasma homocysteine, J Lab Clin Med, 114, 473 Wang, 1992, Homocysteine catabolism, Atherosclerosis, 97, 97, 10.1016/0021-9150(92)90055-L Berman, 1993, Arterial endothelial barrier dysfunction, Br J Pharmacol, 108, 920, 10.1111/j.1476-5381.1993.tb13487.x Starkebaum, 1986, Endothelial cell injury due to copper-catalyzed hydrogen peroxide generation from homocysteine, J Clin Invest, 77, 1370, 10.1172/JCI112442 Clarke, 1992, The role of free radicals as mediators of endothelial cell injury in hyperhomocysteinemia IJMS, 161, 561 Blom, 1992, Lipid peroxidation in homocysteinaemia, J Inherited Metab Dis, 15, 419, 10.1007/BF02435993 Rodgers, 1990, Homocysteine, an atherogenic stimulus, reduces protein C activation by arterial and venous endothelial cells, Blood, 75, 895, 10.1182/blood.V75.4.895.895 Hayashi, 1992, An atherogenic stimulus homocysteine inhibits cofactor activity of thrombomodulin and enhances thrombomodulin expression in human umbilical vein endothelial cells, Blood, 79, 2930, 10.1182/blood.V79.11.2930.2930 Lentz, 1993, Blood, 81, 683, 10.1182/blood.V81.3.683.683 Graeber, 1982, Effect of homocysteine on platelet and vascular arachidonic acid metabolism, Pediatr Res, 16, 490, 10.1203/00006450-198206000-00018 Rolland, 1995, Hyperhomocysteinemia-induced vascular damage in the minipig, Circulation, 91, 1161, 10.1161/01.CIR.91.4.1161 Brattstrom, 1988, Folic acid—an innocuous means to reduce plasma homocysteine, Scand J Clin Lab Invest, 48, 215, 10.3109/00365518809167487 Amadottir, 1993, The effect of high-dose pyridoxine and folic acid supplementation on serum lipid and plasma homocysteine concentrations in dialysis patients, Clin Nephrol, 40, 236 Franken, 1994, Effect of various regimens of vitamin B6 and folic acid on mild hyperhomocysteinaemia in vascular patients, J Inherited Metab Dis, 17, 159, 10.1007/BF00735426 Wilcken, 1983, Homocystinuria—the effects of betaine in the treatment of patients not responsive to pyridoxine, N Engl J Med, 309, 448, 10.1056/NEJM198308253090802 Stabler, 1988, Elevation of total homocysteine in the serum of patients with cobalamin or folate deficiency detected by capillary gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy, J Clin Invest, 81, 466, 10.1172/JCI113343 Joosten, 1993, Cobalamin absorption and serum homocysteine and methylmalonic acid in elderly subjects with low serum cobalamin, Eur J Haematol, 51, 25, 10.1111/j.1600-0609.1993.tb00600.x Naurath, 1995, Effects of vitamin B12, folate, and vitamin B6 supplements in elderly people with normal serum vitamin concentrations, Lancet, 346, 85, 10.1016/S0140-6736(95)92113-3 van den Berg, 1994, Combined vitamin B6 plus folic acid therapy in young patients with arteriosclerosis and hyperhomocysteinemia, J Vasc Surg, 20, 933, 10.1016/0741-5214(94)90230-5 Franken, 1994, Treatment of mild hyperhomocysteinemia in vascular disease patients, Arteriosclerosis Thromb, 14, 465, 10.1161/01.ATV.14.3.465 Boushey, 1995, A quantitative assessment of plasma homocysteine as a risk factor for vascular disease, JAMA, 274, 1049, 10.1001/jama.1995.03530130055028