Hipertensión arterial durante el embarazo: aspectos fisiopatológicos y pronóstico a largo plazo

Redman, 2005, Latest advances in understanding preeclampsia, Science, 308, 1592, 10.1126/science.1111726 Sibai, 2005, Pre-eclampsia, Lancet, 365, 785, 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)71003-5 Davison, 2004, New aspects in the pathophysiology of preeclampsia, J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., 15, 2440, 10.1097/01.ASN.0000135975.90889.60 2000, Report of the national high blood pressure education program working group on high blood pressure in pregnancy, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 183, S1, 10.1067/mob.2000.107928 Aardema, 2004, Second trimester Doppler ultrasound screening of the uterine arteries differentiates between subsequent normal and poor outcomes of hypertensive pregnancy: two different pathophysiological entities?, Clin. Sci., 106, 377, 10.1042/CS20030385 Vatten, 2004, Is pre-eclampsia more than one disease?, BJOG, 111, 298, 10.1111/j.1471-0528.2004.00071.x Saftlas, 1990, Epidemiology of preeclampsia and eclampsia in the United States, 1979-1986, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 163, 460, 10.1016/0002-9378(90)91176-D Zhang, 2003, Severe maternal morbidity associated with hypertensive disorders in pregnancy in the United States, Hypertens. Pregn., 22, 203, 10.1081/PRG-120021066 Sibai, 1993, Maternal morbidity and mortality in 442 pregnancies with hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelets (HELLP syndrome), Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 169, 1000, 10.1016/0002-9378(93)90043-I Cincotta, 1996, A review of eclampsia in Melbourne: 1978-1992, Aust. N. Z. J. Obstet. Gynaecol., 36, 264, 10.1111/j.1479-828X.1996.tb02707.x Beaufils, 1983, Hypertensions artérielles gravidiques et médecine préventive. Étude des facteurs étiologiques et du pronostic à moyen terme dans 442 cas, Bull. Acad. Natl. Med., 167, 413 Sibai, 1995, Risk factors for preeclampsia in healthy nulliparous women: a prospective multicenter study. The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Network of Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 172, 642, 10.1016/0002-9378(95)90586-3 Duckitt, 2005, Risk factors for pre-eclampsia at antenatal booking: systematic review of controlled studies, BMJ, 330, 565, 10.1136/bmj.38380.674340.E0 Conde-Agudelo, 1999, Cigarette smoking during pregnancy and risk of preeclampsia: a systematic review, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 181, 1026, 10.1016/S0002-9378(99)70341-8 Zhang, 1999, The puzzling association between smoking and hypertension during pregnancy, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 181, 1407, 10.1016/S0002-9378(99)70384-4 Maynard, 2003, Excess placental soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 (sFlt1) may contribute to endothelial dysfunction, hypertension, and proteinuria in preeclampsia, J. Clin. Invest., 111, 649, 10.1172/JCI17189 Powers, 2005, Maternal serum soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 concentrations are not increased in early pregnancy and decrease more slowly postpartum in women who develop preeclampsia, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 193, 185, 10.1016/j.ajog.2004.11.038 Robillard, 1994, Association of pregnancy-induced hypertension with duration of sexual cohabitation before conception, Lancet, 344, 973, 10.1016/S0140-6736(94)91638-1 Smith, 1997, lncreased incidence of preeclampsia in women conceiving by intrauterine insemination with donor versus partner sperm for treatment of primary infertility, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 177, 455, 10.1016/S0002-9378(97)70215-1 Koelman, 2000, Correlation between oral sex and a low incidence of preeclampsia: a role for soluble HLA in seminal fluid?, J. Reprod. Immunol., 46, 155, 10.1016/S0165-0378(99)00062-5 Klonoff-Cohen, 1989, An epidemiologic study of contraception and preeclampsia, JAMA, 262, 3143, 10.1001/jama.1989.03430220066032 Einarsson, 2003, Sperm exposure and development of preeclampsia, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 188, 1241, 10.1067/mob.2003.401 Wang, 2002, Surgically obtained sperm, and risk of gestational hypertension and pre-eclampsia, Lancet, 359, 673, 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)07804-2 Robertson, 2003, Seminal 'priming' for protection from pre-eclampsia-a unifying hypothesis, J. Reprod. Immunol., 59, 253, 10.1016/S0165-0378(03)00052-4 Dekker, 1995, Underlying disorders associated with severe early-onset preeclampsia, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 173, 1042, 10.1016/0002-9378(95)91324-6 Kupferminc, 1999, Increased frequency of genetic thrombophilia in women with complications of pregnancy, N. Engl. J. Med., 340, 9, 10.1056/NEJM199901073400102 Rey, 2003, Thrombophilic disorders and fetal loss: a meta-analysis, Lancet, 361, 901, 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12771-7 Lin, 2005, Genetic thrombophilias and preeclampsia: a meta-analysis, Obstet. Gynecol., 105, 182, 10.1097/01.AOG.0000146250.85561.e9 2005, Disentangling Fetal and Maternal Susceptibility for Pre-Eclampsia: A British Multicenter Candidate-Gene Study, Am. J. Hum. Genet., 77, 127, 10.1086/431245 Cincotta, 1998, Family history of pre-eclampsia as a predictor for pre-eclampsia in primigravidas, Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet., 60, 23, 10.1016/S0020-7292(97)00241-5 Arngrimsson, 1990, Genetic and familial predisposition to eclampsia and pre-eclampsia in a defined population, Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol., 97, 762, 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1990.tb02569.x Cnattingius, 2004, Maternal and fetal genetic factors account for most of familial aggregation of preeclampsia: a population-based Swedish cohort study, Am. J. Med. Genet., 130, 365, 10.1002/ajmg.a.30257 Thornton, 1999, Twin mothers, pregnancy hypertension and pre-eclampsia, Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol., 106, 570, 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1999.tb08326.x Treolar, 2001, An Australian twin study of the genetic basis of preeclampsia and eclampsia, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 184, 374, 10.1067/mob.2001.109400 Salonen, 2000, Genetic effects on the liability of developing pre-eclampsia and gestational hypertension, Am. J. Med. Genet., 91, 256, 10.1002/(SICI)1096-8628(20000410)91:4<256::AID-AJMG3>3.0.CO;2-T Ward, 1993, A molecular variant of angiotensinogen associated with preeclampsia, Nat. Genet., 4, 59, 10.1038/ng0593-59 Morgan, 1999, Angiotensinogen Thr235 variant is associated with abnormal physiologic change of the uterine spiral arteries in first-trimester decidua, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 180, 95, 10.1016/S0002-9378(99)70156-0 Arngrimsson, 1997, Evidence for a familial pregnancy-induced hypertension locus in the eNOS-gene region, Am. J. Hum. Genet., 61, 354, 10.1086/514843 Savvidou, 2001, Endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene polymorphism and maternal vascular adaptation to pregnancy, Hypertension, 38, 1289, 10.1161/hy1201.097305 van Dijk, 2005, Maternal segregation of the Dutch preeclampsia locus at 10q22 with a new member of the winged helix gene family, Nat. Genet., 37, 514, 10.1038/ng1541 Lie, 1998, Fetal and maternal contributions to risk of pre-eclampsia: population based study, BMJ, 316, 1343, 10.1136/bmj.316.7141.1343 Esplin, 2001, Paternal and maternal components of the predisposition to preeclampsia, N. Engl. J. Med., 344, 867, 10.1056/NEJM200103223441201 Skjaerven, 2005, Recurrence of pre-eclampsia across generations: exploring fetal and maternal genetic components in a population based cohort, BMJ, 331, 877, 10.1136/bmj.38555.462685.8F Dizon-Townson, 1997, Fetal carriers of the factor V Leiden mutation are prone to miscarriage and placental infarction, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 177, 402, 10.1016/S0002-9378(97)70205-9 Abitbol, 1977, Experimental toxemia of pregnancy in the monkey, with a preliminary report on renin and aldosterone, Am. J. Pathol., 86, 573 Zhou, 1993, Increased depth of trophoblast invasion after chronic constriction of the lower aorta in rhesus monkeys, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 169, 224, 10.1016/0002-9378(93)90172-F Faas, 1994, A new animal model for human preeclampsia: ultra-low-dose endotoxin infusion in pregnant rats, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 171, 158, 10.1016/0002-9378(94)90463-4 Davisson, 2002, Discovery of a spontaneous genetic mouse model of preeclampsia, Hypertension, 39, 337, 10.1161/hy02t2.102904 Di Nicolantonio, 2000, Fetal versus maternal determinants of the reduced fetal and placental growth in spontaneously hypertensive rats, J. Hypertens., 18, 45, 10.1097/00004872-200018010-00007 Takimoto, 1996, Hypertension induced in pregnant mice by placental renin and maternal angiotensinogen, Science, 274, 995, 10.1126/science.274.5289.995 Bohlender, 2000, Rats transgenic for human renin and human angiotensinogen as a model for gestational hypertension, J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., 11, 2056, 10.1681/ASN.V11112056 Piering, 1993, Preeclampsia related to a functioning extrauterine placenta: report of a case and 25-year follow-up, Am. J. Kidney Dis., 21, 310, 10.1016/S0272-6386(12)80751-7 Caniggia, 1997, Activin is a local regulator of human cytotrophoblast cell differentiation, Endocrinology, 138, 3976, 10.1210/en.138.9.3976 Zhou, 1997, Human cytotrophoblasts adopt a vascular phenotype as they differentiate. A strategy for successful endovascular invasion?, J. Clin. Invest., 99, 2139, 10.1172/JCI119387 Xia, 2002, Angiotensin II inhibits human trophoblast Invasion through AT1 Receptor Activation, J. Biol. Chem., 277, 24601, 10.1074/jbc.M201369200 Rajakumar, 2004, Evidence for the functional activity of hypoxia-inducible transcription factors overexpressed in preeclamptic placentae, Placenta, 25, 763, 10.1016/j.placenta.2004.02.011 Robertson, 1976, Maternal uterine vascular lesions in the hypertensive complications of pregnancy, Perspect. Nephrol. Hypertens., 5, 115 Khong, 1986, Inadequate maternal vascular response to placentation in pregnancies complicated by pre-eclampsia and by small-for-gestational age infants, Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol., 93, 1049, 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1986.tb07830.x Brosens, 2002, The myometrial junctional zone spiral arteries in normal and abnormal pregnancies --A review of the literature, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 187, 1416, 10.1067/mob.2002.127305 Parham, 2004, NK cells and trophoblasts: partners in pregnancy, J. Exp. Med., 200, 951, 10.1084/jem.20041783 Hiby, 2004, Combinations of maternal KIR and fetal HLA-C genes influence the risk of preeclampsia and reproductive success, J. Exp. Med., 200, 957, 10.1084/jem.20041214 Yie, 2005, Low plasma HLA-G protein concentrations in early gestation indicate the development of preeclampsia later in pregnancy, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 193, 204, 10.1016/j.ajog.2004.11.062 Hylenius, 2004, Association between HLA-G genotype and risk of pre-eclampsia: a case-control study using family triads, Mol. Hum. Reprod., 10, 237, 10.1093/molehr/gah035 Agrawal, 2003, The potential role of HLA-G polymorphism in maternal tolerance to the developing fetus, J. Hematother. Stem Cell Res., 12, 749, 10.1089/15258160360732768 Tsatsaris, 2003, Overexpression of the soluble vascular endothelial growth factor receptor in preeclamptic patients: pathophysiological consequences, J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 88, 5555, 10.1210/jc.2003-030528 Ahmad, 2004, Elevated placental soluble vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1 inhibits angiogenesis in preeclampsia, Circul Res., 95, 884, 10.1161/01.RES.0000147365.86159.f5 Zhou, 2002, Vascular endothelial growth factor ligands and receptors that regulate human cytotrophoblast survival are dysregulated in severe preeclampsia and hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelets syndrome, Am. J. Pathol., 160, 1405, 10.1016/S0002-9440(10)62567-9 Levine, 2004, Circulating angiogenic factors and the risk of preeclampsia, N. Engl. J. Med., 350, 672, 10.1056/NEJMoa031884 Levine, 2005, Urinary placental growth factor and risk of preeclampsia, JAMA, 293, 77, 10.1001/jama.293.1.77 Hertig, 2004, Maternal serum sFlt1 concentration is an early and reliable predictive marker of preeclampsia, Clin. Chem., 50, 1702, 10.1373/clinchem.2004.036715 Thadhani, 2004, First trimester placental growth factor and soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 and risk for preeclampsia, J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 89, 770, 10.1210/jc.2003-031244 Wolf, 2005, Circulating levels of the antiangiogenic marker sFLT-1 are increased in first versus second pregnancies, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 193, 16, 10.1016/j.ajog.2005.03.016 Lam, 2005, Circulating angiogenic factors in the pathogenesis and prediction of preeclampsia, Hypertension, 46, 1077, 10.1161/01.HYP.0000187899.34379.b0 Karumanchi, 2004, Hypoxia and sFlt-1 in preeclampsia: The "Chicken-and-Egg" question, Endocrinology, 145, 4835, 10.1210/en.2004-1028 Wallukat, 1999, Patients with preeclampsia develop agonistic autoantibodies against the angiotensin AT1 receptor, J. Clin. Invest., 103, 945, 10.1172/JCI4106 Dechend, 2000, AT(1) receptor agonistic antibodies from preeclamptic patients cause vascular cells to express tissue factor, Circulation, 101, 2382, 10.1161/01.CIR.101.20.2382 Dechend, 2003, AT1 receptor agonistic antibodies from preeclamptic patients stimulate NADPH oxidase, Circulation, 107, 1632, 10.1161/01.CIR.0000058200.90059.B1 Dechend, 2005, Agonistic autoantibodies to the AT1 receptor in a transgenic rat model of preeclampsia, Hypertension, 45, 742, 10.1161/01.HYP.0000154785.50570.63 Dragun, 2005, Angiotensin II Type 1-receptor activating antibodies in renal-allograft rejection, N. Engl. J. Med., 352, 558, 10.1056/NEJMoa035717 Beaufils, 1981, Metabolism of uric acid in normal and pathologic pregnancy, Contrib. Nephrol., 25, 132, 10.1159/000396023 Roberts, 2001, Pathogenesis and genetics of pre-eclampsia, Lancet, 357, 53, 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)03577-7 Levine, 2004, Two-stage elevation of cell-free fetal DNA in maternal sera before onset of preeclampsia, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 190, 707, 10.1016/j.ajog.2003.12.019 Redman, 2003, Pre-eclampsia, the placenta and the maternal systemic inflammatory response--a review, Placenta, 24, S21, 10.1053/plac.2002.0930 Cockell, 1997, Flow-mediated vasodilatation is enhanced in normal pregnancy but reduced in preeclampsia, Hypertension, 30, 247, 10.1161/01.HYP.30.2.247 Pascoal, 1998, Preeclampsia selectively impairs endothelium-dependent relaxation and leads to oscillatory activity in small omental arteries, J. Clin. Invest., 101, 464, 10.1172/JCI557 Savvidou, 2003, Endothelial dysfunction and raised plasma concentrations of asymmetric dimethylarginine in pregnant women who subsequently develop pre-eclampsia, Lancet, 361, 1511, 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13177-7 Sugawara, 2005, Decrease and senescence of endothelial progenitor cells in patients with preeclampsia, J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 90, 5329, 10.1210/jc.2005-0532 Wang, 1991, The imbalance between thromboxane and prostacyclin in preeclampsia is associated with an imbalance between lipid peroxides and vitamin E in maternal blood, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 165, 1695, 10.1016/0002-9378(91)90017-L Zemel, 1990, Altered platelet calcium metabolism as an early predictor of increased peripheral vascular resistance and preeclampsia in urban black women, N. Engl. J. Med., 323, 434, 10.1056/NEJM199008163230702 Bobst, 2005, Maternal autoantibodies from preeclamptic patients activate angiotensin receptors on human mesangial cells and induce interleukin-6 and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 secretion, Am. J. Hypertens., 18, 330, 10.1016/j.amjhyper.2004.10.002 Hirashima, 2003, Trophoblast expression of fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 is not required for the establishment of the maternal-fetal interface in the mouse placenta, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 100, 15637, 10.1073/pnas.2635424100 Raijmakers, 2004, Oxidative stress and preeclampsia: rationale for antioxidant clinical trials, Hypertension, 44, 374, 10.1161/01.HYP.0000141085.98320.01 Chesley, 1976, The remote prognosis of eclamptic women. Sixth periodic report, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 124, 446, 10.1016/0002-9378(76)90168-X Sibai, 1986, Severe preeclampsia-eclampsia in young primigravid women: subsequent pregnancy outcome and remote prognosis, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 155, 1011, 10.1016/0002-9378(86)90336-4 Sibai, 1992, Eclampsia. VII. Pregnancy outcome after eclampsia and long-term prognosis, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 166, 1757, 10.1016/0002-9378(92)91566-S Pouta, 2004, Manifestations of metabolic syndrome after hypertensive pregnancy, Hypertension, 43, 825, 10.1161/01.HYP.0000120122.39231.88 Wilson, 2003, Hypertensive diseases of pregnancy and risk of hypertension and stroke in later life: results from cohort study, BMJ, 326, 845, 10.1136/bmj.326.7394.845 Fisher, 1981, Hypertension in pregnancy: clinical-pathological correlations and remote prognosis, Medicine, 60, 267, 10.1097/00005792-198107000-00002 Delauche, 1980, Relevance of the renal biopsy to the future course of preeclamptic women, 219 Forest, 2005, Early Occurrence of Metabolic Syndrome After Hypertension in Pregnancy, Obstet. Gynecol., 105, 1373, 10.1097/01.AOG.0000163252.02227.f8 Smith, 2001, Pregnancy complications and maternal risk of ischaemic heart disease: a retrospective cohort study of 129,290 births, Lancet, 357, 2002, 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)05112-6 Irgens, 2001, Long-term mortality of mothers and fathers after pre-eclampsia: population based cohort study Pre-eclampsia and cardiovascular disease later in life: who is at risk?, BMJ, 323, 1213, 10.1136/bmj.323.7323.1213 Agatisa, 2004, Impairment of endothelial function in women with a history of preeclampsia: an indicator of cardiovascular risk, Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol., 286, H1389, 10.1152/ajpheart.00298.2003 Sattar, 2002, Pregnancy complications and maternal cardiovascular risk: opportunities for intervention and screening?, BMJ, 325, 157, 10.1136/bmj.325.7356.157 Barker, 1989, Growth in utero, blood pressure in childhood and adult life, and mortality from cardiovascular disease, BMJ, 298, 564, 10.1136/bmj.298.6673.564 Alexander, 2003, Placental insufficiency leads to development of hypertension in growth-restricted offspring, Hypertension, 41, 457, 10.1161/01.HYP.0000053448.95913.3D Hughson, 2003, Glomerular number and size in autopsy kidneys: the relationship to birth weight, Kidney Int., 63, 2113, 10.1046/j.1523-1755.2003.00018.x Ingelfinger, 2004, Pathogenesis of perinatal programming, Curr. Opin. Nephrol. Hypertens., 13, 459, 10.1097/01.mnh.0000133977.09688.2f