Health impacts from cyanobacteria harmful algae blooms: Implications for the North American Great Lakes

Harmful Algae - Tập 54 - Trang 194-212 - 2016
Wayne W. Carmichael1, Gregory L. Boyer2
1Department of Biological Sciences, Wright State University, Dayton, OH 45435, USA
2Department of Chemistry, State University of New York, College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, NY 13210 USA

Tài liệu tham khảo

Allen, 2007, Evolutionary biology: out of thin air, Nature, 445, 610, 10.1038/445610a Allinger, 2013, The ecological history of Lake Erie as recorded by the phytoplankton community, J. Great Lakes Res., 39, 365, 10.1016/j.jglr.2013.06.014 Anfossi, 2011, Occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in dairy products, 10.5772/22724 Aráoz, 2010, Neurotoxic cyanobacterial toxins, Toxicon, 56, 813, 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.07.036 Arthur, 1883, Some algae of Minnesota supposed to be poisonous, Bull. Minn. Acad. Sci., 2, 1 Ashworth, 1986, 288 Azevedo, 2002, Human intoxication by microcystins during renal dialysis treatment in Caruaru—Brazil, Toxicology, 181, 441, 10.1016/S0300-483X(02)00491-2 Babica, 2006, Exploring the natural role of microcystins—a review of effects on photoautotrophic organisms, J. Phycol., 42, 9, 10.1111/j.1529-8817.2006.00176.x Backer, 2012, Freshwater Algal blooms and public health, Lake Line, Fall, 9 Backer, 2008, Recreational exposure to low concentrations of microcystins during an algal bloom in a small lake, Mar. Drugs, 6, 389, 10.3390/md6020389 Backer, 2015, Cyanobacteria and algae blooms: review of health and environmental data from the harmful algal bloom-related illness surveillance system (HABISS) 2007–2011, Toxins, 7, 1048, 10.3390/toxins7041048 Backer, 2010, Recreational exposure to microcystins during algal blooms in two California lakes, Toxicon, 55, 909, 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.07.006 Barbiero, 2001, Results from the U.S. EPA's biological open water surveillance program of the Laurentian Great Lakes: I. Introduction and phytoplankton results, J. Great Lakes Res., 27, 134, 10.1016/S0380-1330(01)70628-4 Batoréu, 2005, Risk of human exposure to paralytic toxins of algal origin, Environ. J. Toxicol. Pharm., 19, 401, 10.1016/j.etap.2004.12.002 Becker, 2009, Mapping cyanobacterial blooms in the great lakes using MODIS, J. Great Lakes Res., 35, 447, 10.1016/j.jglr.2009.05.007 Bidigare, 2009, Cyanobacteria and BMAA: possible linkage with avian vacuolar myelinopathy (AVM) in the southeastern United States?, Amyotrophic Lateral Scler., S2, 71, 10.3109/17482960903273056 Bienfang, 2011, Prominent human health impacts from several marine microbes: history, ecology, and public health implications, Int. J. Microbiol., 2011, 1, 10.1155/2011/152815 Boopathi, 2014, Impact of environmental factors on the regulation of cyanotoxin production, Toxins (Basel.), 6, 1951, 10.3390/toxins6071951 Boyer, 2007, The occurrence of cyanobacterial toxins in New York lakes: lessons for the MERHAB-Lower Great lakes program, Lake Res. Manage., 23, 153, 10.1080/07438140709353918 Boyer, 2008, Cyanobacterial toxins in New York and the lower Great Lakes ecosystems, Vol. 619, 153 Boyer, 2015, The New York State citizen-based monitoring program for cyanobacteria toxins, 250 Bridgeman, 2010, Lyngbya wollei in western Lake Erie, J. Great Lakes Res., 36, 167, 10.1016/j.jglr.2009.12.003 Brittain, 2000, Isolation and characterization of microcystins, cyclic heptapeptide hepatotoxins from a Lake Erie strain of Microcystis aeruginosa, J. Great Lakes Res., 26, 241, 10.1016/S0380-1330(00)70690-3 Brooks, 2016, Are harmful algal blooms becoming the greatest inland water quality threat to public health and aquatic ecosystems?, Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 35, 6, 10.1002/etc.3220 Burns, 2008, Toxic cyanobacteria in Florida Waters, Vol. 619, 127 Butler, 2012, 119 Carmichael, 1997, The cyanotoxins, 47, 211 Carmichael, 2001, 179 Carmichael, 2001, Health effects of toxin producing cyanobacteria: “the CyanoHABS”, Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess., 7, 1393, 10.1080/20018091095087 Carmichael, 1975, Toxicology and pharmacological action of Anabaena flos-aquae toxin, Science, 187, 542, 10.1126/science.803708 Carmichael, 1988, Naming of cyclic heptapeptide toxins of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), Toxicon, 26, 971, 10.1016/0041-0101(88)90195-X Carmichael, 2001, Human fatalities from cyanobacteria: chemical and biological evidence for cyanotoxins, Environ. Health Perspect., 109, 663, 10.1289/ehp.01109663 Carmichael, 1997, Evidence for paralytic shellfish poisons in the freshwater cyanobacterium Lyngbya wollei (Farlow ex Gomont) comb.nov, J. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 63, 3104, 10.1128/AEM.63.8.3104-3110.1997 Carmichael, 2006, North American CyanoHABs Carmichael, 2013, 56 Chapman, 2010, Cyanobacteria, 125 Chapman, 1997, Recent appearance of Cylindrospermopsis (Cyanobacteria) in five hypereutrophic Florida Lakes, J. Phycol., 33, 191, 10.1111/j.0022-3646.1997.00191.x Chen, 2015, A review of reproductive toxicity of microcystins, J. Hazard. Mater., 301, 381, 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2015.08.041 Chen, 2013, Nodularins in poisoning, Clin. Chim. Acta, 425, 18, 10.1016/j.cca.2013.07.005 Chen, 2009, First identification of the hepatotoxic microcystins in the serum of a chronically exposed human population together with indication of hepatocellular damage, Toxicol. Sci., 108, 81, 10.1093/toxsci/kfp009 2005, 122 2012, 151 1999 Cheung, 2013, Toxin-producing cyanobacteria in freshwater: a review of the problems, impact on drinking water safety, and efforts for protecting public health, J. Microbiol., 51, 1, 10.1007/s12275-013-2549-3 Christensen, 2012, Detection and quantification of β-methylamino-l-alanine in aquatic invertebrates, Limnol. Oceanogr. Methods, 10, 891, 10.4319/lom.2012.10.891 City of Toledo, 2014 City of Toledo, 2015 Codd, 1999, Cyanobacterial toxins, exposure routes and human health, Eur. J. Phycol., 34, 405, 10.1080/09670269910001736462 Codd, 2005, Cyanobacterial toxins: risk management for health protection, Tox. Appl. Pharm., 203, 264, 10.1016/j.taap.2004.02.016 Codd, 2006, CYANONET, a global network for cyanobacterial bloom and toxin risk management: initial situation assessment and recommendations Cox, 2005, Diverse taxa of cyanobacteria produce β-n-methylamino-l-alanine, a neurotoxic amino acid, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 102, 5074, 10.1073/pnas.0501526102 de la Cruz, 2013, A review on cylindrospermopsin: the global occurrence, detection, toxicity and degradation of a potent cyanotoxin, Environ. Sci. Process Impacts, 15, 1979, 10.1039/c3em00353a Davis, 2014, Phylogenies of microcystin-producing cyanobacteria in the Lower Laurentian Great Lakes suggest extensive genetic connectivity, PLoS ONE, 9, e106093, 10.1371/journal.pone.0106093 Devic, 2002, Detection of anatoxin-a(s) in environmental samples of cyanobacteria by using a biosensor with engineered acetylcholinesterases, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 68, 4102, 10.1128/AEM.68.8.4102-4106.2002 Devlin, 1977, Anatoxin-a, a toxic alkaloid from Anabaena flos-aquae NRC-44H, Can. J. Chem., 55, 1367, 10.1139/v77-189 Dodds, 2009, Eutrophication of U.S. freshwaters: analysis of potential economic damages, Environ. Sci. Technol., 43, 12, 10.1021/es801217q Donohue, 2008, Risk assessment workgroup report, Vol. 619, 759 Dörr, 2010, Methods for detection of anatoxin-a(s) by liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry, Toxicon, 55, 92, 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.07.017 Duncan, 1992, β-methylamino-l-alanine (BMAA) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis parkinsonism dementia of the Western Pacific, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 648, 161, 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1992.tb24534.x Dyble, 2008, Microcystin concentrations and genetic diversity of Microcystis in the lower Great Lakes, Environ. Toxicol., 23, 507, 10.1002/tox.20370 Fahnenstiel, 2008, Microcystin concentrations and cell quotas in Saginaw Bay, Lake Huron, Aquat. Ecosys. Health Manage., 11, 190, 10.1080/14634980802092757 Falconer, 1996, Tumour promotion by cyanobacterial toxins, Phycologia, 35, 74, 10.2216/i0031-8884-35-6S-74.1 Falconer, 2004, 296 Faassen, 2014, Presence of the neurotoxin BMAA in aquatic ecosystems: what do we really know, Toxins, 6, 1109, 10.3390/toxins6031109 Fischer, 2005, Organic anion transporting polypeptides expressed in liver and brain mediate uptake of microcystin Toxicol, Appl. Pharmacol., 203, 257, 10.1016/j.taap.2004.08.012 Fawell, 1994, 1 Fitch, 1934, “Water bloom” as a cause of poisoning in domestic animals, Cornell Vet., 24, 30 Fortin, 2010, Detection of microcystin-producing cyanobacteria in Missisquoi Bay, Quebec, Canada, using quantitative PCR, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 76, 5105, 10.1128/AEM.00183-10 Foss, 2012, Characterization of paralytic shellfish toxins from Lyngbya wollei dominated mats collected from two Florida springs, Harmful Algae, 16, 98, 10.1016/j.hal.2012.02.004 Francis, 1878, Poisonous Australian lake, Nature, 18, 11, 10.1038/018011d0 Frey, 2004 Fristachi, 2008, Occurrence of cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms workgroup report, Vol. 619, 45 Funari, 2008, Human health risk assessment related to cyanotoxins exposure, Crit. Rev. Toxicol., 38, 97, 10.1080/10408440701749454 Gehringer, 2012, Nodularin, a cyanobacterial toxin, is synthesized in plants by symbiotic Nostoc sp, ISME J., 6, 1834, 10.1038/ismej.2012.25 Giannuzzi, 2011, An acute case of intoxication with cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins in recreational water in Salto Grande Dam, Argentina, Mar. Drugs, 9, 2164, 10.3390/md9112164 Giddings, 2012, Canada: cyanobacterial toxins; drinking and recreational water quality guidelines, 29 Gilroy, 2000, Assessing potential health risks from microcystin toxins in blue-green algae dietary supplements, Environ. Health Perspect., 108, 435, 10.1289/ehp.00108435 Grosse, 2006, Carcinogenicity of nitrate, nitrite, and cyanobacterial peptide toxins, Lancet Oncol., 7, 628, 10.1016/S1470-2045(06)70789-6 Hall, 2011, Updated norovirus outbreak management and disease prevention guidelines, Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. (MMWR), 60, 1 Hawkins, 1985, Severe hepatotoxicity caused by the tropical cyanobacterium (blue-green alga) Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii (Woloszynska) Seenaya and Subba Raju isolated from a domestic water supply reservoir, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 50, 1292, 10.1128/AEM.50.5.1292-1295.1985 Hereman, 2012, Bioaccumulation of microcystins in lettuce, J. Phycol., 48, 1535, 10.1111/jpy.12006 Higgins, 2010, What a difference a species makes: a meta-analysis of dreissenid mussel impacts on freshwater ecosystems, Ecol. Monogr., 80, 179, 10.1890/09-1249.1 Hillborn, 2015, One Health and cyanobacteria in freshwater systems: animal illnesses and deaths are sentinel events for human health risks, Toxins, 7, 1374, 10.3390/toxins7041374 Hindman, 1975, Pyrogenic reactions during haemodialysis caused by extramural endotoxin, Lancet, 2, 732, 10.1016/S0140-6736(75)90721-7 Hitzfeld, 2000, Cyanobacterial toxins: removal during drinking water treatment, and human risk assessment, Environ. Health Perspect., 108, 113 Ho, 2015, Challenges in tracking harmful algal blooms: a synthesis of evidence from Lake Erie, J. Great Lakes Res., 41, 317, 10.1016/j.jglr.2015.01.001 Hoff, 2007, Neurotoxic cyanobacterium (blue-green alga) toxicosis in Ontario, Can. Vet. J., 48, 147 Holland, 2006, 52 Hotto, 2007, Molecular characterization of potential microcystin-producing cyanobacteria in Lake Ontario embayments and nearshore waters, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 73, 4570, 10.1128/AEM.00318-07 2008, Cyanobacterial Harmful Algal Blooms, 948 Humpage, 1994, Paralytic shellfish poisons from Australian cyanobacterial blooms, Aust. J. Mar. Freshwater Res., 45, 761, 10.1071/MF9940761 2005, Vol. 3 James, 2005, Anatoxins and degradation products, determined using hybrid quadrupole time-of-flight and quadrupole ion-trap mass spectrometry: forensic investigations of cyanobacterial neurotoxin poisoning, Rapid Commun. Mass Spec., 19, 1167, 10.1002/rcm.1894 Jarcho, 1952, A study of ‘swimmer's itch’ in the United States and Canada, Geogr. Rev., 42, 212, 10.2307/211386 Jochimsen, 1998, Liver failure and death following exposure to microcystins at a hemodialysis center in Brazil, N. Eng. J. Med., 338, 873, 10.1056/NEJM199803263381304 Jonasson, 2010, Transfer of a cyanobacterial neurotoxin within a temperate aquatic ecosystem suggests pathways for human exposure, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 107, 9252, 10.1073/pnas.0914417107 Komárek, 1998, Cyanoprokaryota 1. Teil: Chroococcales, 548 Komárek, 2005, Cyanoprokaryota 2. Teil/2nd Part: Oscillatoriales, 759 Komárek, 2012, Nomenclatural changes in heterocytous cyanoprokaryotes (Cyanobacteria, Cyanophytes), Fottea, 12, 141, 10.5507/fot.2012.011 Komárek, 2013, Cyanoprokaryota 3. Teil/3rd Part: Heterocystous genera, 1030 Lagos, 1999, The first evidence of paralytic shellfish toxins in the freshwater cyanobacterium Cylindrospermoposis raciborskii, isolated from Brazil, Toxicon, 37, 1359, 10.1016/S0041-0101(99)00080-X Lajeunesse, 2012, Detection and confirmation of saxitoxin analogues in freshwater benthic Lyngbya wollei algae collected in the St. Lawrence River (Canada) by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry, J. Chromat. A, 1219, 93, 10.1016/j.chroma.2011.10.092 Lee, 2013, New strains of norovirus and the mystery of viral gastroenteritis epidemics, Can. Med. Assoc. J., 185, 1381, 10.1503/cmaj.130426 Lévesque, 2014, Prospective study of acute health effects in relation to exposure to cyanobacteria, Sci. Total Environ., 466–467, 397, 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.07.045 Li, 2011, A cross-sectional investigation of chronic exposure to microcystin in relationship to childhood liver damage in the Three Gorges Reservoir region, China, Environ. Health Perspect., 119, 1483, 10.1289/ehp.1002412 Lopez, 2008 Mahmood, 1986, The pharmacology of anatoxin-a(s), a neurotoxin produced by the fresh-water cyanobacterium Anabaena flos-aquae NRC 525-17, Toxicon, 24, 425, 10.1016/0041-0101(86)90074-7 Makarewicz, 2009, Spatial and temporal distribution of the cyanotoxin microcystin-LR in the Lake Ontario ecosystem: coastal embayments, rivers, nearshore and offshore and upland lakes, J. Great Lakes Res., 35, 83, 10.1016/j.jglr.2008.11.010 Mann, 2012, Toxicon, 60, 1404, 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.10.006 Matsunaga, 1989, Anatoxin-a(s), a potent anticholinesterase from Anabaena flos-aquae, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 111, 8021, 10.1021/ja00202a057 Meneely, 2013, Microcystins: measuring human exposure and the impact on human health, Biomarkers, 18, 639, 10.3109/1354750X.2013.841756 Meng, 2011, Microcystin-LR induces cytoskeleton system reorganization through hyperphosphorylation of tau and HSP27 via PP2A inhibition and subsequent activation of the p38 MAPK signaling pathway in neuroendocrine (PC12) cells, Toxicology, 290, 218, 10.1016/j.tox.2011.09.085 Merel, 2013, State of knowledge and concerns on cyanobacterial blooms and cyanotoxins, Environ. Int., 59, 303, 10.1016/j.envint.2013.06.013 2005 Michalak, 2013, Record-setting algal blooms in Lake Erie caused by agricultural and meteorological trends consistent with expected future conditions, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 110, 6448, 10.1073/pnas.1216006110 Michigan Department of Environmental Quality, 2014 Mihuc, 2005, Phytoplankton community composition and cyanobacterial toxins in Lake Champlain, USA, Verh. Int. Ver. Limnol., 39, 328 Miller, 1931, Epidemic of intestinal disorders in Charleston, West Virginia, occurring simultaneously with unprecedented water supply conditions, Am. J. Public Health, 21, 198, 10.2105/AJPH.21.2.198 Murch, 2004, Occurrence of beta-methylamino-l-alanine (BMAA) in ALS/PDC patients from Guam, Acta Neurol. Scand., 110, 267, 10.1111/j.1600-0404.2004.00320.x Murphy, 2003, New microcystin concerns in the lower great lakes, Water Qual. Res. J. Can., 38, 127, 10.2166/wqrj.2003.008 Obenour, 2014, Using a Bayesian hierarchical model to improve Lake Erie cyanobacteria bloom forecasts, Water Resour. Res., 50, 7847, 10.1002/2014WR015616 Ohio EPA, 2014, Public water system harmful algal bloom response strategy Onodera, 1997, Confirmation of anatoxin-a(s), in the cyanobacterium Anabaena lemmermannii, as the cause of bird kills in Danish lakes, Toxicon, 35, 1645, 10.1016/S0041-0101(97)00038-X Orr, 2006, 61 Ouellette, 2006, Toxic Microcystis is widespread in Lake Erie: PCR detection of toxin genes and molecular characterization of associated cyanobacterial communities, Microb. Ecol., 51, 154, 10.1007/s00248-004-0146-z Pablo, 2009, Cyanobacterial neurotoxin BMAA in ALS and Alzheimer's disease, Acta Neurol. Scand., 120, 216, 10.1111/j.1600-0404.2008.01150.x Paerl, 2008, Nutrient and other environmental controls of harmful cyanobacterial blooms along the freshwater-marine continuum, Vol. 619, 217 Paerl, 2013, Harmful cyanobacterial blooms: causes, consequences, and controls, Microb. Ecol., 65, 995, 10.1007/s00248-012-0159-y Paerl, 2012, Climate change: links to global expansion of harmful cyanobacteria, Water Res., 46, 1349, 10.1016/j.watres.2011.08.002 Paul, 2008, Global warming and cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms, Vol. 619, 217 Pearson, 2010, On the chemistry, toxicology and genetics of the cyanobacterial toxins, microcystin, nodularin, saxitoxin and cylindrospermopsin, Mar. Drugs, 8, 1650, 10.3390/md8051650 Perri, 2015, Harmful algal blooms in Sodus Bay, Lake Ontario: a comparison of nutrients, shoreline use and cyanobacterial toxins, J. Great Lake Res., 41, 326, 10.1016/j.jglr.2015.03.022 Peterson, 1995, Physiological toxicity, cell membrane damage and the release of dissolved organic carbon and geosmin by Aphanizomenon flos-aquae after exposure to water treatment chemicals, Water Res., 29, 1515, 10.1016/0043-1354(94)00300-V Poste, 2011, Evaluating microcystin exposure risk through fish consumption, Environ. Sci. Technol., 45, 5806, 10.1021/es200285c Pouria, 1998, Fatal microcystin intoxication in haemodialysis unit in Caruaru, Brazil, Lancet, 352, 21, 10.1016/S0140-6736(97)12285-1 Qin, 2015, Cyanobacterial bloom management through integrated monitoring and forecasting in large shallow eutrophic Lake Taihu (China), J. Hazard. Mater., 287, 356, 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2015.01.047 Radicello, 2015 Rasmussen, 2007, Early detection of cyanobacterial toxins using genetic methods, 131 Ressom, 1994, 108 Réveillon, 2015, β-N-Methylamino-l-alanine (BMAA) and isomers: distribution in different food web compartments of Thau lagoon, French Mediterranean Sea, Mar. Environ. Res., 110, 8, 10.1016/j.marenvres.2015.07.015 Rinta-Kanto, 2006, Diversity of microcystin-producing cyanobacteria in spatially isolated regions of Lake Erie, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 72, 5083, 10.1128/AEM.00312-06 Rinta-Kanto, 2005, Quantification of toxic Microcystis spp. during the 2003 and 2004 blooms in western Lake Erie using quantitative real-time PCR, Environ. Sci. Technol., 39, 4198, 10.1021/es048249u Rinta-Kanto, 2009, Lake Erie Microcystis: relationship between microcystin production, dynamics of genotypes and environmental parameters in a large lake, Harmful Algae, 8, 665, 10.1016/j.hal.2008.12.004 Sarma, 2013, Cyanobacterial toxins, 487 Sarma, 2013, 802 Scavia, 2014, Assessing and addressing the re-eutrophication of Lake Erie: central basin hypoxia, J. Great Lakes Res., 40, 226, 10.1016/j.jglr.2014.02.004 Schmidt, 2013, Variations in the microcystin content of different fish species collected from a eutrophic lake, Toxins, 5, 992, 10.3390/toxins5050992 Schmidt, 2014, The fate of microcystins in the environment and challenges for monitoring, Toxins, 6, 3354, 10.3390/toxins6123354 Schwimmer, 1968, Medical aspects of phycology, 279 Sivonen, 2008, Emerging high throughput analysis of cyanobacterial toxins and toxic cyanobacteria, Vol. 619, 539 Smith, 2008, A review of cyanobacterial odorous and bioactive metabolites: impacts and management alternatives in aquaculture, Aquaculture, 280, 5, 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2008.05.007 Soward, 2011, 54 Steffen, 2014, Status, causes and controls of cyanobacterial blooms in Lake Erie, J. Great Lakes Res., 40, 215, 10.1016/j.jglr.2013.12.012 Steffensen, 2008, Economic costs of cyanobacterial blooms, Vol. 619, 849 Stewart, 2006, Recreational and occupational field exposure to freshwater cyanobacteria—a review of anecdotal and case reports, epidemiological studies and the challenges for epidemiologic assessment, Environ. Health, 5, 6, 10.1186/1476-069X-5-6 Stewart, 2006, Cyanobacterial lipopolysaccharides and human health—a review, Environ. Health, 5, 1 Stewart, 2011, Toxic cyanobacteria, 95 Stumpf, 2012, Interannual variability of cyanobacterial blooms in Lake Erie, PLoS ONE, 7, e42444, 10.1371/journal.pone.0042444 Svircev, 2009, Freshwater cyanobacterial blooms and primary liver cancer epidemiological studies in Serbia, J. Environ. Sci. Health, C, 27, 36, 10.1080/10590500802668016 The H.J. Heinz III Center for Science, Economics and the Environment, 2008, 352 Taylor, 2014, Toxic alkaloids in Lyngbya majuscula and related tropical marine cyanobacteria, Harmful Algae, 31, 1, 10.1016/j.hal.2013.09.003 US-EPA, 2007 US-EPA, 2012 US-EPA, 2015 US-EPA, 2015 US-EPA, 2015 US-EPA, 2015 USGS, 2006 Verbrugge, 2004, Swimmer's itch: incidence and risk factors, Am. J. Public Health, 94, 738, 10.2105/AJPH.94.5.738 Vijayavel, 2013, The establishment of the nuisance cyanobacteria Lyngbya wollei in Lake St. Clair and its potential to harbor fecal indicator bacteria, J. Great Lakes Res., 39, 560, 10.1016/j.jglr.2013.09.018 Walker, 2008, Nebraska experience, Vol. 619, 217 Werner, 2012, Lyngbya dermatitis (toxic seaweed dermatitis), Int. J. Dermatol., 51, 59, 10.1111/j.1365-4632.2011.05042.x Watson, 2009, Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) in the Great Lakes: current status and concerns, 78 Watson, 2014, Harmful Algal Blooms (HABS) in the Great Lakes: current status and concerns Watson, 2014, Harmful and nuisance algae, 46 Watson, 2008, Algal and cyanobacterial taste and odour and toxins: a review of current impairment, prediction and management in the Great Lakes, Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 65, 1779, 10.1139/F08-084 Watson, 2003, Hamilton Harbour: phytoplankton and algal toxins, 67 Watson, 2012, Algal Bloom Response and risk management: evaluation of on-site toxin kits in Hamilton Harbour, 24 Watson, 2015, Harmful algal blooms, 873 Wiese, 2010, Neurotoxic alkaloids: saxitoxin and its analogs, Mar. Drugs, 8, 2185, 10.3390/md8072185 Weise, 1970, Identification and analysis of a lipopolysaccharide in cell walls of the blue-green algae Anacystis nidulans, Arch. Microbiol., 71, 89 Wilson, 2005, Genetic variation of the bloom-forming cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa within and among lakes: Implications for harmful algal blooms, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 71, 6126, 10.1128/AEM.71.10.6126-6133.2005 Wilson, 2008, Evaluation of the human health threat associated with the hepatotoxin microcystin in the muscle and liver tissues of yellow perch (Perca flavescens), Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 65, 1487, 10.1139/F08-067 Winter, 2011, Algal blooms in Ontario, Canada: increases in reports since 1994, Lake Res. Manage., 27, 105 Wynne, 2015, Spatial and temporal patterns in the seasonal distribution of toxic cyanobacteria in western Lake Erie from 2002–2014, Toxins, 7, 1649, 10.3390/toxins7051649 Xie, 2011, The influence of environmental conditions and hydrologic connectivity on cyanobacteria assemblages in two drowned river mouth lakes, J. Great Lakes Res., 37, 470, 10.1016/j.jglr.2011.05.002 Yoshida, 2008, Intra-specific phenotypic and genotypic variation in toxic cyanobacterial Microcystis strains, J. Appl. Microbiol., 105, 407, 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2008.03754.x Yu, 1989, Drinking water and primary liver cancer, 30 Zegura, 2011, Genotoxicity and potential carcinogenicity of cyanobacterial toxins—a review, Mutat. Res., 727, 16, 10.1016/j.mrrev.2011.01.002