Hard Structures for Coastal Protection, Towards Greener Designs

Springer Science and Business Media LLC - Tập 42 Số 7 - Trang 1709-1729 - 2019
Talia Schoonees1, Alejandra Gijón Mancheño2, Babette Scheres3, Tjeerd J. Bouma4, Rodolfo Silva5, Torsten Schlurmann1, Holger Schüttrumpf3
1Ludwig Franzius Institute of Hydraulic, Estuarine and Coastal Engineering, Leibniz University Hannover, Nienburger Str. 4, 30167, Hannover, Germany
2Department of Hydraulic Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft University of Technology, P.O. Box 5048, 2600 GA Delft, The Netherlands
3Institute for Hydraulic Engineering and Water Resources Management, RWTH Aachen University, Mies-van-der-Rohe Str. 17, 52056, Aachen, Germany
4Department of Estuarine and Delta systems, Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research (NIOZ), P.O. Box 140, 4400 AC, Yerseke, The Netherlands
5Instituto de Ingeniería, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, 04510 Mexico City, Mexico

Tóm tắt

Từ khóa


Tài liệu tham khảo

Airoldi, L., X. Turon, S. Perkol-Finkel, and M. Rius. 2015. Corridors for aliens but not for natives: Effects of marine urban sprawl at a regional scale. Diversity and Distributions. 21 (7): 755–768. https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.12301 .

Barber, T. 1999. Reef balls TM: An advanced technique to mimic natural reef systems using designed artificial reefs. In Abstracts of the 7th Scientific Conference on Artificial Reefs and Related Habitats, October, 1999, in San Remo, Italy.

Bishop, M.J., M. Mayer-Pinto, L. Airoldi, L.B. Firth, R.L. Morris, L.H.L. Loke, S.J. Hawkins, L.A. Naylor, R.A. Coleman, S.Y. Chee, and K.A. Dafforn. 2017. Effects of ocean sprawl on ecological connectivity: Impacts and solutions. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology. 492: 7–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jembe.2017.01.021 .

BMU. 2006. Integriertes Küstenzonenmanagement in Deutschland. Nationale Strategie für ein integriertes Küstenzonenmanagement (Bestandsaufnahme, Stand 2006). in German.

Borsje, B.W., B.K. van Wesenbeeck, F. Dekker, P. Paalvast, T.J. Bouma, M.M. van Katwijk, and M.B. de Vries. 2011. How ecological engineering can serve in coastal protection. Ecological Engineering. 37 (2): 113–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2010.11.027 .

Bouma, T.J., M.B. De Vries, E. Low, G. Peralta, I.C. Tánczos, J. van de Koppel, and P.M.J. Herman. 2005. Trade-offs related to ecosystem engineering: A case study on stiffness of emerging macrophytes. Ecology 86 (8): 2187–2199. https://doi.org/10.1890/04-1588 .

Bouma, T.J., M.B. De Vries, and P.M.J. Herman. 2010. Comparing ecosystem engineering efficiency of two plant species with contrasting growth strategies. Ecology 91 (9): 2696–2704. https://doi.org/10.1890/09-0690.1 .

Bouma, T.J., J. van Belzen, T. Balke, Z. Zhu, L. Airoldi, A.J. Blight, A.J. Davies, C. Galvan, S.J. Hawkins, S.P.G. Hoggart, J.L. Lara, I.J. Losada, M. Maza, B. Ondiviela, M.W. Skov, E.M. Strain, R.C. Thompson, S. Yang, B. Zanuttigh, L. Zhang, and P.M.J. Herman. 2014. Identifying knowledge gaps hampering application of intertidal habitats in coastal protection: Opportunities & steps to take. Coastal Engineering 87: 147–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coastaleng.2013.11.014 .

Bouma, T.J., J. van Belzen, T. Balke, J. van Dalen, P. Klaassen, A.M. Hartog, D.P. Callaghan, Z. Hu, M.J.F. Stive, S. Temmerman, and P.M.J. Herman. 2016. Short-term mudflat dynamics drive long-term cyclic salt marsh dynamics. Limnology and Oceanography 61 (6): 2261–2275. https://doi.org/10.1002/lno.10374 .

Bradley, K., and C. Houser. 2009. Relative velocity of seagrass blades: Implications for wave attenuation in low-energy environments. Journal of Geophysical Research 114 (F1): F01004. https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JF000951 .

Bridges, T.S., P.W. Wagner, K.A. Burks-Copes, M.E. Bates, Z. Collier, C.J. Fischenich, J.Z. Gailani, L.D. Leuck, C.D. Piercy, J.D. Rosati, E.J. Russo, D.J. Shafer, B.C. Suedel, E.A. Vuxton, and T. V Wamsley. 2015. Use of natural and nature-based features (NNBF) for coastal resilience. ERDC SR-15-1.

Britton, J.C., and B. Morton. 1989. Shore ecology of the Gulf of Mexico. University of Texas Press.

Browne, M.A., and M.G. Chapman. 2011. Ecologically informed engineering reduces loss of intertidal biodiversity on artificial shorelines. Environmental Science & Technology. 45 (19): 8204–8207. https://doi.org/10.1021/es201924b .

Bulleri, F., M. Abbiati, and L. Airoldi. 2006. The colonisation of human-made structures by the invasive alga Codium fragile ssp. tomentosoides in the North Adriatic Sea (NE Mediterranean). Hydrobiologia 555 (1): 263–269. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-005-1122-4 .

Callaghan, D.P., T.J. Bouma, P. Klaassen, D. van der Wal, M.J.F. Stive, and P.M.J. Herman. 2010. Hydrodynamic forcing on salt-marsh development: Distinguishing the relative importance of waves and tidal flows. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 89 (1): 73–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2010.05.013 .

Cao, H., Z. Zhu, T. Balke, L. Zhang, and T.J. Bouma. 2018. Effects of sediment disturbance regimes on Spartina seedling establishment: Implications for salt marsh creation and restoration. Limnology and Oceanography 63 (2): 647–659. https://doi.org/10.1002/lno.10657 .

Capobianco, M., and M.J.F. Stive. 2000. Soft intervention technology as a tool for integrated coastal zone management. Journal of Coastal Conservation 6 (1): 33–40. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02730465 .

Chapman, M.G., and D.J. Blockley. 2009. Engineering novel habitats on urban infrastructure to increase intertidal biodiversity. Oecologia 161 (3): 625–635. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-009-1393-y .

Chapman, M.G., and A.J. Underwood. 2011. Evaluation of ecological engineering of “armoured” shorelines to improve their value as habitat. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 400 (1-2): 302–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jembe.2011.02.025 .

Cheong, S., B. Silliman, P.P. Wong, B. van Wesenbeeck, C. Kim, and G. Guannel. 2013. Coastal adaptation with ecological engineering. Nature Climate Change 3 (9): 787–791. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1854 .

Christianen, M.J.A., J. van Belzen, P.M.J. Herman, M.M. van Katwijk, L.P.M. Lamers, P.J.M. van Leent, and T.J. Bouma. 2013. Low-canopy seagrass beds still provide important coastal protection services. PLoS One 8 (5): e62413. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0062413 .

CIRIA. 2007. The rock manual: The use of rock in hydraulic engineering. London: CIRIA.

CIRIA. 2013. The international levee handbook. London: CIRIA (CIRIA, C731).

Coastal Engineering Research Centre (CERC). 1984. Shore Protection Manual (SPM). 4th ed. Washington, DC: U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, U. S. Government Printing Office.

COM. 2002. Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 May 2002 concerning the implementation of Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Europe. (2002/413/EC) Official Journal of the European Communities L 148/24, 662002.

Coombes, M.A., E.C. La Marca, L.A. Naylor, and R.C. Thompson. 2015. Getting into the groove: Opportunities to enhance the ecological value of hard coastal infrastructure using fine-scale surface textures. Ecological Engineering 77: 314–323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2015.01.032 .

Costanza, R., R. D’Arge, R. de Groot, S. Farber, M. Grasso, B. Hannon, K. Limburg, S. Naeem, R.V. O’Neill, J. Paruelo, R.G. Raskin, P. Sutton, and M. van den Belt. 1997. The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387 (6630): 253–260. https://doi.org/10.1038/387253a0 .

David, G.C., N. Schulz, and T. Schlurmann. 2016. Ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction and adaptation in practice. Cham: Springer International Publishing.

De Vriend, H.J., and M. Van Koningsveld. 2012. Building with nature: Thinking, acting and interacting differently. Dordrecht: EcoShape, Building with Nature.

De Vriend, H., M. van Koningsveld, and S. Aarninkhof. 2014. ‘Building with nature’: The new Dutch approach to coastal and river works. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Civil Engineering 167 (1): 18–24. https://doi.org/10.1680/cien.13.00003 .

De Vries, M., T.J. Bouma, M. van Katwijk, and B.W. Borsje. 2007. Biobouwers van de Kust. Technical report (Z4158). Delft: WL | Delft Hydraulics.

Dean, R.G. 1987. Coastal armouring: Effects, principles and mitigation. In 20th international conference on coastal engineering 1986, Taipei, Taiwan. pp 1843–1857.

DEFRA. 2006. Shoreline management plan guidance. Volume 1: Aims and requirements. London: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs.

Dijkema, K.S. 1987. Changes in salt-marsh area in the Netherlands Wadden Sea after 1600. In Vegetation between land and sea, ed. A.H.L. Huiskes, C.W.P.M. Blom, and J. Rozema, 42–49. Dordrecht: Dr W Junk Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-4065-9_4 .

Douglass, S.L., and B.H. Pickel. 1999. The tide doesn’t go out anymore: The effect of bulkheads on urban bay shorelines. Shore & Beach 67 (2&3): 19–25.

Dugan, J.E., D.M. Hubbard, I.F. Rodil, D.L. Revell, and S. Schroeter. 2008. Ecological effects of coastal armoring on sandy beaches. Marine Ecology 29 (s1): 160–170. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0485.2008.00231.x .

Dugan, J.E., L. Airoldi, M.G. Chapman, S.J. Walker, and T. Schlacher. 2011. Estuarine and coastal structures: Environmental effects, a focus on shore and nearshore structures. In Treatise on Estuarine and Coastal Science. Elsevier, pp 17–41.

EAK. 2002. Empfehlungen für Küstenschutzwerke. Korrigierte Ausgabe 2007. In Kuratorium für Forschung im Küsteningenieurwesen (KFKI), ed. Die Küste, vol. 65. Karlsruhe: Bundesanstalt für Wasserbau (BAW).

Erftemeijer, P.L.A., and R.R. Lewis III. 2006. Environmental impacts of dredging on seagrasses: A review. Marine Pollution Bulletin 52 (12): 1553–1572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2006.09.006 .

Erftemeijer, P.L.A., B. Riegl, B.W. Hoeksema, and P.A. Todd. 2012. Environmental impacts of dredging and other sediment disturbances on corals: A review. Marine Pollution Bulletin 64 (9): 1737–1765. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2012.05.008 .

European Commission. 2015. Towards an EU Research and Innovation policy agenda for nature-based solutions & re-naturing cities. Final report of the Horizon 2020.

EurOtop. 2018. Manual on wave overtopping of sea defences and related structures. An overtopping manual largely based on European research, but for worldwide application. In ed. J. W. van der Meer, N. W. H. Allsop, T. Bruce, J. de Rouck, A. Kortenhaus, T. Pullen, H. Schüttrumpf, P. Troch and B. Zannutigh. Available online at www.overtopping-manual.com .

Evans, A.J., L.B. Firth, S.J. Hawkins, E.S. Morris, H. Goudge, and P.J. Moore. 2016. Drill-cored rock pools: An effective method of ecological enhancement on artificial structures. Marine and Freshwater Research 67 (1): 123–130. https://doi.org/10.1071/MF14244 .

Evans, A.J., B. Garrod, L.B. Firth, S.J. Hawkins, E.S. Morris-Webb, H. Goudge, and P.J. Moore. 2017. Stakeholder priorities for multi-functional coastal defence developments and steps to effective implementation. Marine Policy 75: 143–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2016.10.006 .

Feagin, R.A., N. Mukherjee, K. Shanker, A.H. Baird, J. Cinner, A.M. Kerr, N. Koedam, A. Sridhar, R. Arthur, L.P. Jayatissa, D. Lo Seen, M. Menon, S. Rodriguez, M. Shamsuddoha, and F. Dahdouh-Guebas. 2010. Shelter from the storm? Use and misuse of coastal vegetation bioshields for managing natural disasters. Conservation Letters 3 (1): 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-263X.2009.00087.x .

Ferrario, F., M.W. Beck, C.D. Storlazzi, F. Micheli, C.C. Shepard, and L. Airoldi. 2014. The effectiveness of coral reefs for coastal hazard risk reduction and adaptation. Nature Communications 5 (1): 3794. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms4794 .

Firth, L.B., R.C. Thompson, and S.J. Hawkins. 2012. Eco-engineering of artificial coastal structures to enhance biodiversity: An illustrated guide.

Firth, L.B., N. Mieszkowska, R.C. Thompson, and S.J. Hawkins. 2013. Climate change and adaptational impacts in coastal systems: The case of sea defences. Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts 15 (9): 1665. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3em00313b .

Firth, L.B., R.C. Thompson, K. Bohn, M. Abbiati, L. Airoldi, T.J. Bouma, F. Bozzeda, V.U. Ceccherelli, M.A. Colangelo, A. Evans, F. Ferrario, M.E. Hanley, H. Hinz, S.P.G. Hoggart, J.E. Jackson, P. Moore, E.H. Morgan, S. Perkol-Finkel, M.W. Skov, E.M. Strain, J. van Belzen, and S.J. Hawkins. 2014. Between a rock and a hard place: Environmental and engineering considerations when designing coastal defence structures. Coastal Engineering 87: 122–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coastaleng.2013.10.015 .

Firth, L.B., A.M. Knights, D. Bridger, A.J. Evans, N. Mieszkowska, P.J. Moore, N.E. O’Connor, E.V. Sheehan, R.C. Thompson, and S.J. Hawkins. 2016a. Ocean sprawl: Challenges and opportunities for biodiversity Management in a Changing World Introduction: Context and background. An Annual Review 54: 193–269.

Firth, L.B., K.A. Browne, A.M. Knights, S.J. Hawkins, and R. Nash. 2016b. Eco-engineered rock pools: A concrete solution to biodiversity loss and urban sprawl in the marine environment. Environmental Research Letters 11 (9): 094015. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/11/9/094015 .

Fonseca, M.S., and J.A. Cahalan. 1992. A preliminary evaluation of wave attenuation by four species of seagrass. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 35 (6): 565–576. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7714(05)80039-3 .

Gambi, M., A. Nowell, and P. Jumars. 1990. Flume observations on flow dynamics in Zostera marina (eelgrass) beds. Marine Ecology Progress Series 61: 159–169. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps061159 .

Gillis, L., T. Bouma, C. Jones, M. van Katwijk, I. Nagelkerken, C. Jeuken, P. Herman, and A. Ziegler. 2014. Potential for landscape-scale positive interactions among tropical marine ecosystems. Marine Ecology Progress Series 503: 289–303. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps10716 .

Glasby, T.M., S.D. Connell, M.G. Holloway, and C.L. Hewitt. 2007. Nonindigenous biota on artificial structures: Could habitat creation facilitate biological invasions? Marine Biology 151 (3): 887–895. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-006-0552-5 .

Griggs, G. 2010.The effects of armoring shorelines—The California experience. In Puget Sound shorelines and the impacts of armoring - Proceedings of a State of the Science Workshop, May 2009. pp 77–84.

Hall, A.E., R.J.H. Herbert, J.R. Britton, and S.L. Hull. 2018. Ecological enhancement techniques to improve habitat heterogeneity on coastal defence structures. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 210: 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2018.05.025 .

Hamm, L., M. Capobianco, H. Dette, A. Lechuga, R. Spanhoff, and M.J. Stive. 2002. A summary of European experience with shore nourishment. Coastal Engineering 47 (2): 237–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-3839(02)00127-8 .

Henderson, J., and J. O’Neil. 2003. Economic Values Associated with Construction of Oyster Reefs by the Corps of Engineers. ERDC TN-EMRRP-ER-01:

Hsu, J.R.C., and R. Silvester. 1990. Accretion behind single offshore breakwater. Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering 116 (3): 362–380. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-950X(1990)116:3(362) .

ICES. 2016. Effects of extraction of marine sediments on the marine environment 2005–2011. ICES Cooperative Research Report No. 330. 260 pp.

IUCN. 2016. Nature-based solutions to address global societal challenges. In eds. Cohen-Shacham, E Walters, G Janzen, C Maginnis, S. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.CH.2016.13.en .

Jackson, N.L., and K.F. Nordstrom. 2011. Aeolian sediment transport and landforms in managed coastal systems: A review. Aeolian Research 3 (2): 181–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aeolia.2011.03.011 .

Keith, S.A., R.J.H. Herbert, P.A. Norton, S.J. Hawkins, and A.C. Newton. 2011. Individualistic species limitations of climate-induced range expansions generated by meso-scale dispersal barriers. Diversity and Distributions 17 (2): 275–286. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1472-4642.2010.00734.x .

Knutson, P.L., R.A. Brochu, W.N. Seelig, and M. Inskeep. 1982. Wave damping in Spartina alterniflora marshes. Wetlands 2 (1): 87–104. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03160548 .

Koch, E.W., E.B. Barbier, B.R. Silliman, D.J. Reed, G.M. Perillo, S.D. Hacker, E.F. Granek, J.H. Primavera, N. Muthiga, S. Polasky, B.S. Halpern, C.J. Kennedy, C.V. Kappel, and E. Wolanski. 2009. Non-linearity in ecosystem services: Temporal and spatial variability in coastal protection. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 7 (1): 29–37. https://doi.org/10.1890/080126 .

Kraus, N.C. 1988. The effects of seawalls on the beach: An extended literature review. Journal of Coastal Research. 1–28. https://doi.org/10.2307/25735349 .

Kraus, N.C., and W.G. McDougal. 1996. The effects of seawalls on the beach: Part I, An Updated Literature Review. Journal of Coastal Research 12: 691–701.

Lillycrop, W.J., and S.A. Hughes. 1993. Scour hole problems experienced by the Corps of Engineers; Data Presentation and Summary. CERC-93-2.

Losada, M.A. 1990. Recent development in the design of mound breakwaters. In Chapter 21, ed. Herbich, J. Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Vol. 1. Gulf Publishing.

Lucrezi, S., T.A. Schlacher, and W. Robinson. 2010. Can storms and shore armouring exert additive effectson sandy-beach habitats and biota? Marine and Freshwater Research 61 (9): 951. https://doi.org/10.1071/MF09259 .

Martins, G.M., R.C. Thompson, A.I. Neto, S.J. Hawkins, and S.R. Jenkins. 2010. Enhancing stocks of the exploited limpet Patella candei d’Orbigny via modifications in coastal engineering. Biological Conservation 143 (1): 203–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2009.10.004 .

McIvor, A.L., I. Möller, T. Spencer, and M. Spalding. 2012. Reduction of wind and swell waves by mangroves. Natural coastal protection series: Report 1 Cambridge Coastal Research Unit Working Paper 40 Published by The Nature Conservancy and Wetlands International, 27 pages, ISSN 2050-7941.

Meyer, M., and A. Emersleben. 2009. Einsatz von Geozellen im Deich- und Wasserbau. In 3. Symposium “Sicherung von Dämmen, Deichen und Stauanlagen”, 431–443. Institut für Geotechnik der Universität Siegen.

Meyer, D.L., E.C. Townsend, and G.W. Thayer. 1997. Stabilization and Erosion control value of oyster cultch for intertidal marsh. Restoration Ecology 5 (1): 93–99. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1526-100X.1997.09710.x .

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA). 2005. Ecosystems and human well-being: Synthesis. Washington: Island Press.

Mohamed, T.A., N.A. Alias, A.H. Ghazali, and M.S. Jaafar. 2006. Evaluation of environmental and hydraulic performance of bio-composite revetment blocks. American Journal of Environmental Sciences 2 (4): 129–134. https://doi.org/10.3844/ajessp.2006.129.134 .

Möller, I., M. Kudella, F. Rupprecht, T. Spencer, M. Paul, B.K. van Wesenbeeck, G. Wolters, K. Jensen, T.J. Bouma, M. Miranda-Lange, and S. Schimmels. 2014. Wave attenuation over coastal salt marshes under storm surge conditions. Nature Geoscience 7 (10): 727–731. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2251 .

Morris, R.L., T.M. Konlechner, M. Ghisalberti, and S.E. Swearer. 2018. From grey to green: Efficacy of eco-engineering solutions for nature-based coastal defence. Global Change Biology 24 (5): 1827–1842. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14063 .

Mory, M., and L. Hamm. 1997. Wave height, setup and currents around a detached breakwater submitted to regular or random wave forcing. Coastal Engineering 31 (1-4): 77–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-3839(96)00053-1 .

Moschella, P.S., M. Abbiati, P. Åberg, L. Airoldi, J.M. Anderson, F. Bacchiocchi, F. Bulleri, G.E. Dinesen, M. Frost, E. Gacia, L. Granhag, P.R. Jonsson, M.P. Satta, A. Sundelöf, R.C. Thompson, and S.J. Hawkins. 2005. Low-crested coastal defence structures as artificial habitats for marine life: Using ecological criteria in design. Coastal Engineering 52 (10-11): 1053–1071. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coastaleng.2005.09.014 .

Murray, J.M., A. Meadows, and P.S. Meadows. 2002. Biogeomorphological implications of microscale interactions between sediment geotechnics and marine benthos: A review. Geomorphology 47 (1): 15–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-555X(02)00138-1 .

Narayan, S., M.W. Beck, B.G. Reguero, I.J. Losada, B. van Wesenbeeck, N. Pontee, J.N. Sanchirico, J.C. Ingram, G.-M. Lange, and K.A. Burks-Copes. 2016. The effectiveness, costs and coastal protection benefits of natural and nature-based defences. PLoS One 11 (5): e0154735. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0154735 .

Naylor, L.A., O. Venn, M. Coombes, J. Jackson, and R.C. Thompson. 2011. Including ecological enhancements in the planning, design and construction of hard coastal structures: A process guide. Report to the Environment Agency (PID 110461). 66 pp.

Naylor, L.A., M.A. Coombes, O. Venn, S.D. Roast, and R.C. Thompson. 2012. Facilitating ecological enhancement of coastal infrastructure: The role of policy, people and planning. Environmental Science & Policy 22: 36–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2012.05.002 .

Naylor, L.A., M. MacArthur, S. Hampshire, K. Bostock, M.A. Coombes, J.D. Hansom, R. Byrne, and T. Folland. 2017. Rock armour for birds and their prey: Ecological enhancement of coastal engineering. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Maritime Engineering 170 (2): 67–82. https://doi.org/10.1680/jmaen.2016.28 .

Nesshöver, C., T. Assmuth, K.N. Irvine, G.M. Rusch, K.A. Waylen, B. Delbaere, D. Haase, L. Jones-Walters, H. Keune, E. Kovacs, K. Krauze, M. Külvik, F. Rey, J. van Dijk, O.I. Vistad, M.E. Wilkinson, and H. Wittmer. 2017. The science, policy and practice of nature-based solutions: An interdisciplinary perspective. Science of The Total Environment 579: 1215–1227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.11.106 .

Neumann, B., A.T. Vafeidis, J. Zimmermann, and R.J. Nicholls. 2015. Future coastal population growth and exposure to sea-level rise and coastal flooding - a global assessment. PLoS One 10 (3): e0118571. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118571 .

Nienhuis, P.H., and R.D. Gulati. 2002. Ecological restoration of aquatic and semi-aquatic ecosystems in the Netherlands: An introduction. Springer, Netherlands.

Nordstrom, K.F. 2014. Living with shore protection structures: A review. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 150: 11–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2013.11.003 .

Pan, Y., L. Li, F. Amini, and C. Kuang. 2015. Overtopping erosion and failure mechanism of earthen levee strengthened by vegetated HPTRM system. Ocean Engineering 96: 139–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2014.12.012 .

PIANC. 2011. Working with Nature- PIANC Position Paper. https://www.pianc.org/workingwithnature.php . Accessed 4 May 2018.

Pilarczyk, K.W. 2003. Design of low-crested (submerged) structures – An overview –. In 6th international conference on coastal and port engineering in developing countries, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Pilarczyk, K. 2017. Dikes and revetments: Design. Maintenance and Safety Assessment, Routledge ISBN: 978-90-5410-455-1.

Pilarczyk, K.W., and R.B. Zeidler. 1996. Offshore breakwaters and shore evolution control. Rotterdam: Balkema ISBN: 90-5410-627-1.

Pontee, N., S. Narayan, M.W. Beck, and A.H. Hosking. 2016. Nature-based solutions: Lessons from around the world. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Maritime Engineering 169 (1): 29–36. https://doi.org/10.1680/jmaen.15.00027 .

Ranasinghe, R., and I.L. Turner. 2006. Shoreline response to submerged structures: A review. Coastal Engineering 53 (1): 65–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coastaleng.2005.08.003 .

ROM. 2009. Recomendaciones para obras maritimas, Serie I. Obras de abrigo frente a las oscilaciones de mar. Puertos del Estado, Ministerio de Fomento, Gobierno de España.

SAGE. 2015. Natural and structural measures for shoreline stabilization. http://sagecoast.org/docs/SAGE_LivingShorelineBrochure_Print.pdf . Accessed 21 May 2018.

Salgado, K., and M.L. Martinez. 2017. Is ecosystem-based coastal defense a realistic alternative? Exploring the evidence. Journal of Coastal Conservation 21 (6): 837–848. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11852-017-0545-1 .

Scheres, B., and H. Schüttrumpf. 2017. Conception of ecologically valuable sea dike systems. In In Mediterranean Coastal Foundation. The thirteenth international MEDCOAST congress on coastal and marine sciences, engineering, management and conservation. MEDCOAST 17, 893–904. Mellieha, Malta.

Schmitt, K., T. Albers, T.T. Pham, and S.C. Dinh. 2013. Site-specific and integrated adaptation to climate change in the coastal mangrove zone of Soc Trang Province, Viet Nam. Journal of Coastal Conservation 17 (3): 545–558. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11852-013-0253-4 .

Schüttrumpf, H. 2008. Sea Dikes in Germany. In Kuratorium für Forschung im Küsteningenieurwesen (KFKI). In ed. Die Küste, 189–199. 74 Heide i Holstein: Boyens Medien GmbH & Co KG.

Scott, T., M. Austin, G. Masselink, and P. Russell. 2016. Dynamics of rip currents associated with groynes — Field measurements, modelling and implications for beach safety. Coastal Engineering 107: 53–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coastaleng.2015.09.013 .

Scyphers, S.B., S.P. Powers, K.L. Heck, and D. Byron. 2011. Oyster reefs as natural breakwaters mitigate shoreline loss and facilitate fisheries. PLoS One 6 (8): e22396. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0022396 .

Sherrard, T.R.W., S.J. Hawkins, P. Barfield, M. Kitou, S. Bray, and P.E. Osborne. 2016. Hidden biodiversity in cryptic habitats provided by porous coastal defence structures. Coastal Engineering 118: 12–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coastaleng.2016.08.005 .

Shi, Z.H., N.F. Fang, F.Z. Wu, L. Wang, B.J. Yue, and G.L. Wu. 2012. Soil erosion processes and sediment sorting associated with transport mechanisms on steep slopes. Journal of Hydrology 454–455: 123–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.06.004 .

Silva, R., D. Lithgow, L.S. Esteves, M.L. Martínez, P. Moreno-Casasola, R. Martell, P. Pereira, E. Mendoza, A. Campos-Cascaredo, P. Winckler Grez, A.F. Osorio, J.D. Osorio-Cano, and G.D. Rivillas. 2017. Coastal risk mitigation by green infrastructure in Latin America. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Maritime Engineering 170 (2): 39–54. https://doi.org/10.1680/jmaen.2016.13 .

Strain, E.M.A., C. Olabarria, M. Mayer-Pinto, V. Cumbo, R.L. Morris, A.B. Bugnot, K.A. Dafforn, E. Heery, L.B. Firth, P.R. Brooks, and M.J. Bishop. 2018. Eco-engineering urban infrastructure for marine and coastal biodiversity: Which interventions have the greatest ecological benefit? Journal of Applied Ecology 55 (1): 426–441. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12961 .

Suh, K., and R.A. Dalrymple. 1987. Offshore breakwaters in laboratory and field. Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering 113 (2): 105–121. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-950X(1987)113:2(105) .

Sutton-Grier, A.E., K. Wowk, and H. Bamford. 2015. Future of our coasts: The potential for natural and hybrid infrastructure to enhance the resilience of our coastal communities, economies and ecosystems. Environmental Science & Policy 51: 137–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2015.04.006 .

Suzuki, T., M. Zijlema, B. Burger, M.C. Meijer, and S. Narayan. 2012. Wave dissipation by vegetation with layer schematization in SWAN. Coastal Engineering 59 (1): 64–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coastaleng.2011.07.006 .

Temmerman, S., P. Meire, T.J. Bouma, P.M.J. Herman, T. Ysebaert, and H.J. De Vriend. 2013. Ecosystem-based coastal defence in the face of global change. Nature 504 (7478): 79–83. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12859 .

Trentmann, J. 2011. Dichtung aus Wasserbausteinen mit Vollverguss aus hydraulisch gebundenem Vergusstoff. In DWA (Ed.): KW Korrespondenz Wasserwirtschaft. 4:452–458.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). 2002. Coastal engineering manual, 1110th-2nd–110th edn. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). 2012. Engineering with nature fact sheet. https://ewn.el.erdc.dren.mil/pub/EWNFactSheet_Final.pdf . Accessed 12 April 2018.

Van der Nat, A., P. Vellinga, R. Leemans, and E. van Slobbe. 2016. Ranking coastal flood protection designs from engineered to nature-based. Ecological Engineering 87: 80–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2015.11.007 .

Van Katwijk, M.M., and N. Dankers. 2001. Ecological coastal protection; mussel beds, seagrass beds and salt-marshes. Poster at Symposium “Food for thought: structuring factors of shallow marine coastal communities”, 29–30. Texel: NIOZ. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.30768.97286 .

Van Loon-Steensma, J.M., H.A. Schelfhout, and P. Vellinga. 2014. Green adaptation by innovative dike concepts along the Dutch Wadden Sea coast. Environmental Science & Policy 44: 108–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2014.06.009 .

Van Rijn, L. C. 2013. Design of hard coastal structures against erosion. Accessed online 22/10/2018. https://www.leovanrijn-sediment.com/papers/Coastalstructures2013.pdf . Accessed 22 Oct 2018.

Wiecek, D. 2009. Environmentally friendly seawalls: A guide to improving the environmental value of seawalls and seawall-lined foreshores in estuaries.

Wilke, M., B. Krueger, M. Schuell, and P. Tschernutter. 2012. Erosion resistant construction of overflow sections by means of geosynthetic concrete mattresses. In Proceedings 6th International Conference on Scour and Erosion (ICSE-6). Paris, France, 27.-31.08.2012: Société Hydrotechnique De France, eds. J.-J. Fry, C. Chevalier, 1231–1238.

Winterwerp, J.C., P.L.A. Erftemeijer, N. Suryadiputra, P. van Eijk, and L. Zhang. 2013. Defining eco-Morphodynamic requirements for rehabilitating eroding mangrove-mud coasts. Wetlands. 33 (3): 515–526. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13157-013-0409-x .