Greening Ammonia toward the Solar Ammonia Refinery

van der Ham, 2014, Challenges in reduction of dinitrogen by proton and electron transfer, Chem. Soc. Rev., 43, 5183, 10.1039/C4CS00085D

Chirik, 2009, One electron at a time, Nat. Chem., 1, 520, 10.1038/nchem.386

Ertl, 2008, Reactions at surfaces: from atoms to complexity (Nobel lecture), Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 47, 3524, 10.1002/anie.200800480

Honkala, 2005, Ammonia synthesis from first-principles calculations, Science, 307, 555, 10.1126/science.1106435

Michalsky, 2015, Rational design of metal nitride redox materials for solar-driven ammonia synthesis, Interface Focus, 5, 20140084, 10.1098/rsfs.2014.0084

Service, 2014, Chemistry. New recipe produces ammonia from air, water, and sunlight, Science, 345, 610, 10.1126/science.345.6197.610

Rosca, 2009, Nitrogen cycle electrocatalysis, Chem. Rev., 109, 2209, 10.1021/cr8003696

Coric, 2015, Binding of dinitrogen to an iron-sulfur-carbon site, Nature, 526, 96, 10.1038/nature15246

Howarth, 2008, Coastal nitrogen pollution: a review of sources and trends globally and regionally, Harmful Algae, 8, 14, 10.1016/j.hal.2008.08.015

Pickett, 1985, Electrosynthesis of ammonia, Nature, 317, 652, 10.1038/317652a0

Christensen, 2006, Towards an ammonia-mediated hydrogen economy?, Catal. Today, 111, 140, 10.1016/j.cattod.2005.10.011

van Kessel, 2015, Complete nitrification by a single microorganism, Nature, 528, 555, 10.1038/nature16459

Yandulov, 2003, Catalytic reduction of dinitrogen to ammonia at a single molybdenum center, Science, 301, 76, 10.1126/science.1085326

2016, 118

Schnitkey, 2017, Fertilizer costs in 2017 and 2018, Farmdoc Daily, 7, 3

Kaag, 2010, The fertilizer encyclopedia, Ref. User Serv. Q., 50, 82, 10.5860/rusq.50n1.82

Stewart, 2005, The contribution of commercial fertilizer nutrients to food production, Agron J., 97, 1, 10.2134/agronj2005.0001

2009

Vaclav, 2004

Li, 2017, Amorphizing of Au nanoparticles by CeOx-RGO hybrid support towards highly efficient electrocatalyst for N2 reduction under ambient conditions, Adv. Mater., 29, 1700001, 10.1002/adma.201700001

Shi, 2017, Au sub-nanoclusters on TiO2 toward highly efficient and selective electrocatalyst for N2 conversion to NH3 at ambient conditions, Adv. Mater., 29, 1606550, 10.1002/adma.201606550

Jackson, 2016, Reaching peak emissions, Nat. Clim. Chang., 6, 7, 10.1038/nclimate2892

Kitano, 2015, Electride support boosts nitrogen dissociation over ruthenium catalyst and shifts the bottleneck in ammonia synthesis, Nat. Commun., 6, 6731, 10.1038/ncomms7731

Ritter, 2008, Iron's star rising, Chem. Eng. News, 86, 53, 10.1021/cen-v086n030.p053

Ceresana (2012). Market Study: Ammonia (UC-3705).https://www.ceresana.com/upload/Marktstudien/brochueren/Ceresana_-_Brochure_Market_Study_Ammonia.pdf.

Brown, 2016, Light-driven dinitrogen reduction catalyzed by a CdS:nitrogenase MoFe protein biohybrid, Science, 352, 448, 10.1126/science.aaf2091

Lu, 2016, Photoprompted hot electrons from bulk cross-linked graphene materials and their efficient catalysis for atmospheric ammonia synthesis, ACS Nano, 10, 10507, 10.1021/acsnano.6b06472

Appl, 1994, The development of the ammonia technology, Chem. Tech., 46, 125

Fuerst, T., Lundin, S., Zhang, Z., Liguori, S., Way, D., and Wolden, C. (2017). Dense metallic membrane reactor synthesis of ammonia at moderate conditions and low cost Paper presented at the NH3 Fuel Conference.

Twygg, 1989

Banerjee, 2015, Photochemical nitrogen conversion to ammonia in ambient conditions with FeMoS-chalcogels, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 137, 2030, 10.1021/ja512491v

Bao, 2017, Electrochemical reduction of N2 under ambient conditions for artificial N2 fixation and renewable energy storage using N2/NH3 cycle, Adv. Mater., 29, 1604799, 10.1002/adma.201604799

Koleli, 2010, Low overpotential reduction of dinitrogen to ammonia in aqueous media, J. Electroanal. Chem., 638, 119, 10.1016/j.jelechem.2009.10.010

U.S. Department of Energy (2015). DOE Technical Targets for Hydrogen Production from Electrolysis. Energy.gov. Available at: https://energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/doe-technical-targets-hydrogen-production-electrolysis. Accessed February 12, 2018.

LAZARD (2017). Lazard's Levelized Cost of Energy Analysis—Version 11.0.https://www.lazard.com/media/450337/lazard-levelized-cost-of-energy-version-110.pdf.

Chen, 2017, Electrocatalytic synthesis of ammonia at room temperature and atmospheric pressure from water and nitrogen on a carbon-nanotube-based electrocatalyst, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 56, 2699, 10.1002/anie.201609533

Golabiewska, 2016, The effect of gold shape and size on the properties and visible light-induced photoactivity of Au-TiO2, Appl. Catal. B Environ., 196, 27, 10.1016/j.apcatb.2016.05.013

Michalsky, 2017, Computational screening of perovskite redox materials for solar thermochemical ammonia synthesis from N2 and H2O, Catal. Today, 286, 124, 10.1016/j.cattod.2016.09.023

Kyriakou, 2017, Progress in the electrochemical synthesis of ammonia, Catal. Today, 286, 2, 10.1016/j.cattod.2016.06.014

Chen, 2017, Ammonia electrosynthesis with high selectivity under ambient conditions via a Li+ incorporation strategy, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 139, 9771, 10.1021/jacs.7b04393

Murakami, 2003, Electrolytic synthesis of ammonia in molten salts under atmospheric pressure, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 125, 334, 10.1021/ja028891t

Murakami, 2005, Investigation of anodic reaction of electrolytic ammonia synthesis in molten salts under atmospheric pressure, J. Electrochem. Soc., 152, D75, 10.1149/1.1874752

Murakami, 2005, Electrolytic ammonia synthesis from water and nitrogen gas in molten salt under atmospheric pressure, Electrochim. Acta, 50, 5423, 10.1016/j.electacta.2005.03.023

Shipman, 2017, A re-evaluation of Sn(II) phthalocyanine as a catalyst for the electrosynthesis of ammonia, Electrochim. Acta, 258, 618, 10.1016/j.electacta.2017.11.105

Singh, 2017, Electrochemical ammonia synthesis-the selectivity challenge, ACS Catal., 7, 706, 10.1021/acscatal.6b03035

Shipman, 2017, Recent progress towards the electrosynthesis of ammonia from sustainable resources, Catal. Today, 286, 57, 10.1016/j.cattod.2016.05.008

Liu, 2017, Ambient nitrogen reduction cycle using a hybrid inorganic-biological system, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 114, 6450, 10.1073/pnas.1706371114

Shanmugam, 1975, Microbial production of ammonium ion from nitrogen, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 72, 136, 10.1073/pnas.72.1.136

Kitano, 2012, Ammonia synthesis using a stable electride as an electron donor and reversible hydrogen store, Nat. Chem., 4, 934, 10.1038/nchem.1476

Kitano, 2018, Self-organized ruthenium-barium core-shell nanoparticles on a mesoporous calcium amide matrix for efficient low-temperature ammonia synthesis, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 57, 2648, 10.1002/anie.201712398

Gong, 2018, Ternary intermetallic LaCoSi as a catalyst for N2 activation, Nat. Catal., 1, 178, 10.1038/s41929-017-0022-0

Peng, 2016, Atmospheric pressure ammonia synthesis using non-thermal plasma assisted catalysis, Plasma Chem. Plasma Process., 36, 1201, 10.1007/s11090-016-9713-6

Hong, 2016, Plasma catalytic synthesis of ammonia using functionalized-carbon coatings in an atmospheric-pressure non-equilibrium discharge, Plasma Chem. Plasma Process., 36, 917, 10.1007/s11090-016-9711-8

Zhu, 2013, Photo-illuminated diamond as a solid-state source of solvated electrons in water for nitrogen reduction, Nat. Mater., 12, 836, 10.1038/nmat3696

Oshikiri, 2016, Selective dinitrogen conversion to ammonia using water and visible light through plasmon-induced charge separation, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 55, 3942, 10.1002/anie.201511189

Zhao, 2017, Layered-double-hydroxide nanosheets as efficient visible-light-driven photocatalysts for dinitrogen fixation, Adv. Mater., 29, 1703828, 10.1002/adma.201703828

Ali, 2016, Nanostructured photoelectrochemical solar cell for nitrogen reduction using plasmon-enhanced black silicon, Nat. Commun., 7, 11335, 10.1038/ncomms11335

Michalsky, 2012, Solar thermochemical production of ammonia from water, air and sunlight: thermodynamic and economic analyses, Energy, 42, 251, 10.1016/j.energy.2012.03.062

S.P.F. LLC (2017). C-Free Renew. Retrieved from solarhydrogensystem.com [Accessed January 7, 2018].

Yara (2017). Solar ammonia. Retrieved from yara.com [Accessed January 7, 2018].

Sable Chemical Industries (2018). Retrieved from http://www.sablechemicals.com/technology [Accessed March 9, 2018].

Brown, T. (2018). Renewable ammonia demonstration plant announced in South Australia. Ammonia Industry. Retrieved from: https://ammoniaindustry.com/renewable-ammonia-demonstration-plant-announced-in-south-australia/ [Accessed March 6, 2018].

Furuya, 1990, Electroreduction of nitrogen to ammonia on gas-diffusion electrodes loaded with inorganic catalyst, J. Electroanal. Chem., 291, 269, 10.1016/0022-0728(90)87195-P

Marnellos, 1998, Ammonia synthesis at atmospheric pressure, Science, 282, 98, 10.1126/science.282.5386.98

Licht, 2014, AMMONIA SYNTHESIS ammonia synthesis by N2 and steam electrolysis in molten hydroxide suspensions of nanoscale Fe2O3, Science, 345, 637, 10.1126/science.1254234

Wang, 2010, Ammonia synthesis at atmospheric pressure using a reactor with thin solid electrolyte BaCe0.85Y0.15O3-alpha membrane, J. Memb. Sci., 360, 397, 10.1016/j.memsci.2010.05.038

Amar, 2011, Solid-state electrochemical synthesis of ammonia: a review, J. Solid State Electr., 15, 1845, 10.1007/s10008-011-1376-x

Amar, 2011, Electrochemical synthesis of ammonia based on doped-ceria-carbonate composite electrolyte and perovskite cathode, Solid State Ion., 201, 94, 10.1016/j.ssi.2011.08.003

Hydrofuel Inc. (2016). New evidence on greener energy solutions to be presented at Los Angeles conference. Retrieved from www.nh3fuel.com [Accessed January 7, 2018].

Hydrofuel Inc. (2006). Back to the future. Retrieved from www.nh3fuel.com [Accessed January 7, 2018].

Hydrofuel Inc. (2015). UOIT MITACS research. Retrieved from nh3fuel.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=29&Itemid=36 [Accessed January 7, 2018].

Anderson, 2013, Catalytic conversion of nitrogen to ammonia by an iron model complex, Nature, 501, 84, 10.1038/nature12435

Kugler, 2015, Galvanic deposition of Rh and Ru on randomly structured Ti felts for the electrochemical NH3 synthesis, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 17, 3768, 10.1039/C4CP05501B

Tsuneto, 1994, Lithium-mediated electrochemical reduction of high-pressure N2 to NH3, J. Electroanal. Chem., 367, 183, 10.1016/0022-0728(93)03025-K

Amar, 2015, Synthesis of ammonia directly from wet nitrogen using a redox stable La0.75Sr0.25Cr0.5Fe0.5O3-delta-Ce0.8Gd0.18Ca0.02O2-delta composite cathode, RSC Adv., 5, 38977, 10.1039/C5RA00600G

Yun, 2015, Electrochemical ammonia synthesis from steam and nitrogen using proton conducting yttrium doped barium zirconate electrolyte with silver, platinum, and lanthanum strontium cobalt ferrite electrocatalyst, J. Power Sources, 284, 245, 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.03.002

Liu, 2018, Facile ammonia synthesis from electrocatalytic N2 reduction under ambient conditions on N-doped porous carbon, ACS Catal., 8, 1186, 10.1021/acscatal.7b02165

Hargreaves, 2014, Nitrides as ammonia synthesis catalysts and as potential nitrogen transfer reagents, Appl. Petrochem. Res., 4, 3, 10.1007/s13203-014-0049-y

Alexander, 2012, The reduction of various nitrides under hydrogen: Ni3N, Cu3N, Zn3N2 and Ta3N5, Top. Catal., 55, 1046, 10.1007/s11244-012-9890-3

Yao, 2018, A spectroscopic study on the nitrogen electrochemical reduction reaction on gold and platinum surfaces, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 140, 1496, 10.1021/jacs.7b12101

Lan, 2013, Synthesis of ammonia directly from air and water at ambient temperature and pressure, Sci. Rep., 3, 1145, 10.1038/srep01145

Lan, 2013, Electrochemical synthesis of ammonia directly from air and water using a Li+/H+/NH4+ mixed conducting electrolyte, RSC Adv., 3, 18016, 10.1039/c3ra43432j

Institute for Sustainable Process Technology (2017). Power to ammonia: from renewable energy to CO2-free ammonia as chemical feedstock and fuel. Retrieved from http://www.ispt.eu/power-ammonia-renewable-energy-co2-free-ammonia-chemical-feedstock-fuel/ [Accessed January 7, 2018].

Siemens plc (2015). Green ammonia. Retrieved from http://www.siemens.co.uk/en/insights/potential-of-green-ammonia-as-fertiliser-and-electricity-storage.htm [Accessed January 7, 2018].

McEnaney, 2017, Ammonia synthesis from N2 and H2O using a lithium cycling electrification strategy at atmospheric pressure, Energ. Environ. Sci., 10, 1621, 10.1039/C7EE01126A

Peng, 2017, Ru-based multifunctional mesoporous catalyst for low-pressure and non-thermal plasma synthesis of ammonia, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy,, 42, 19056, 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.06.118

Schrauzer, 1977, Photolysis of water and photoreduction of nitrogen on titanium-dioxide, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 99, 7189, 10.1021/ja00464a015

Li, 2016, Efficient solar-driven nitrogen fixation over carbon-tungstic-acid hybrids, Chem. Eur. J., 22, 13819, 10.1002/chem.201603277

Li, 2018, Promoted fixation of molecular nitrogen with surface oxygen vacancies on plasmon-enhanced TiO2 photoelectrodes, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.

Kim, 2012, Fuel production from CO2 using solar-thermal energy: system level analysis, Energ. Environ. Sci., 5, 8417, 10.1039/c2ee21798h

Herron, 2015, A general framework for the assessment of solar fuel technologies, Energ. Environ. Sci., 8, 126, 10.1039/C4EE01958J

Herron, 2016, Assessment of solar-to-fuels strategies: photocatalysis and electrocatalytic reduction, Energy Technol., 4, 1369, 10.1002/ente.201600163

Aneke, 2015, Potential for improving the energy efficiency of cryogenic air separation unit (ASU) using binary heat recovery cycles, Appl. Therm. Eng., 81, 223, 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2015.02.034

Thambimuthu, K., Soltanieh, M., Abanades, J.C., Allam, R., Bolland, O., Davison, J., Feron, P., Goede, F., Herrera, A., Iijima, M. et al. (2005). Capture of CO2. IPCC Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture Storage. 105–178.

Galvez, 2007, Ammonia production via a two-step Al2O3/AlN thermochemical cycle. 1. Thermodynamic, environmental, and economic analyses, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 46, 2042, 10.1021/ie061550u