Geologic Evolution of the Himalayan-Tibetan Orogen
Tóm tắt
A review of the geologic history of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen suggests that at least 1400 km of north-south shortening has been absorbed by the orogen since the onset of the Indo-Asian collision at about 70 Ma. Significant crustal shortening, which leads to eventual construction of the Cenozoic Tibetan plateau, began more or less synchronously in the Eocene (50–40 Ma) in the Tethyan Himalaya in the south, and in the Kunlun Shan and the Qilian Shan some 1000–1400 km in the north. The Paleozoic and Mesozoic tectonic histories in the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen exerted a strong control over the Cenozoic strain history and strain distribution. The presence of widespread Triassic flysch complex in the Songpan-Ganzi-Hoh Xil and the Qiangtang terranes can be spatially correlated with Cenozoic volcanism and thrusting in central Tibet. The marked difference in seismic properties of the crust and the upper mantle between southern and central Tibet is a manifestation of both Mesozoic and Cenozoic tectonics. The former, however, has played a decisive role in localizing Tertiary contractional deformation, which in turn leads to the release of free water into the upper mantle and the lower crust of central Tibet, causing partial melting in the mantle lithosphere and the crust.
Từ khóa
Tài liệu tham khảo
Allen CR, Gillespie AR, Han Y, Sieh KE, Zhang B, Zhu C. 1984. Red River and associated faults, Yunnan province, China: Quaternary geology, slip rates, and seismic hazard.Geol. Soc. Am. Bull.95:686–700
Argand E. 1924. La tectonique de l’ Asie,Proc. 13th Int. Geol. Congr.7:171–372
Armijo R, Tapponnier P, Mercier JL, Han T-L. 1986. Quaternary extension in southern Tibet: field observations and tectonic implications.J. Geophys. Res.91:13803–72
Arnaud N, Vidal Ph. 1990. Geochronology and geochemistry of the magmatic rocks from the Kunlun-Karakorum geotraverse.Colloque Kunlun-Karakorum,IGP, Paris. 52 pp.
Avouac JP, Peltzer G. 1993. Active tectonics of southern Xinjiang, China: analysis of terrace risers and normal fault scarp degradation along the Hotan-Qira fault system. J. Geophys. Res.98:21773–807
Bally AW, Chou I-M, Clayton R, Eugster HP, Kidwell S, et al. 1986. Notes on sedimentary basins in China—report of the American Sedimentary Basins delegation to the People’s Republic of China.USGS Open File Report86-327. 108 pp.
Beaumont C, Fullsack P, Hamilton J. 1992. Erosional control of active compressional orogens. InThrust Tectonics,ed. KR McClay, pp. 1–18. New York: Chapman & Hall
Beghoul N, Barzangi M, Isack B. 1993. Lithospheric structure of Tibet and western North America: mechanisms of uplift and a comparative study.J. Geophys. Res.98:1997–2016.
1998, Eos, 79, F207
1998, Eos, 79, 794
Briais A, Patriat P, Tapponnier P. 1993. Updated interpretation of magnetic anomalies and seafloor spreading stages in the South China Sea: implications for the Tertiary tectonics of SE Asia.J. Geophys. Res.98:6299–328
Burbank DW, Beck RA, Mulder T. 1996. The Himalayan foreland basin. InThe Tectonics of Asia,ed. A Yin, TM Harrison, pp. 149–88. New York: Cambridge University Press
Burchfiel BC, Chen Z, Hodges KV, Liu Y, Royden LH, et al. 1992. The South Tibetan Detachment System, Himalayan orogen: extension contemporaneous with and parallel to shortening in a collisional mountain belt.Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap.269:1–41
1991, Ecologae Geol. Helv., 84, 599
1973, Scientia Geologica Sinica., 1, 1
Chen H, Dobson J, Heller F, Hao J. 1995. Paleomagnetic evidence for clockwise rotation of the Simao region since the Cretaceous: a consequence of India-Asia collision. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.134:203–17
Chen W-P, Kao H. 1996. Seismotectonics of Asia: some recent progress. InThe Tectonic Evolution of Asia,ed. A Yin, TM Harrison, pp. 37–52. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
Cheng J, Xu G. 1986. Unpublished geologic map of the Gaize region at a scale of 1:1000,000 and the geologic report, Xizang Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources, p. 369 (in Chinese)
Cheng J, Xu G. 1987a. Unpublished geologic map of the Gedake region at a scale of 1:1000,000 and the geologic report, Xizang Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources, p. 363 (in Chinese)
Cheng J, Xu G. 1987b. Unpublished geologic map of the Ritu region at a scale of 1:1000,000 and the geologic report, Xizang Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources, p. 598 (in Chinese)
Cheng YQ. 1994.Outline of Chinese Regional Geology.Beijing: Geologic Publishing House. 517 pp. (in Chinese)
Colchen M, Bassoullet JP, Mascle G. 1982. La paleogeographie des orogenes, l’example de l’Himalaya.Mem. Geol. l’Univ. Dijon.7:453–71
1995, EOS, 76, F708
Copeland P, Harrison TM, Hodges KV, Maréujol P, Le Fort P, Pêcher A. 1991. An Early Pliocene thermal perturbation of the Main Central Thrust, Central Nepal: implications for Himalayan tectonic.J. Geophys. Res.96:8475–500
Coulon C, Maluski H, Bollinger C, Wang S. 1986. Mesozoic and Cenozoic volcanic rocks from central and southern Tibet:39Ar/40Ar dating, petrological characteristics and geodynamical significance.Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.79:281–302
1998, EOS, 79, F816
1997, EOS, 78, 173
Cowgill E, Yin A, Wang XF, Zhang Q. 1999. Late Cenozoic left-reverse slip movement along the Northern Altyn Tagh Fault and its possible development as the northern boundary of a transpressional strike-slip duplex.Geology.In review
1962, Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap., 71, 1
CSBS (Chinese State Bureau of Seismology). 1992.The Altyn Tagh Active Fault System.Beijing: Seismology Publishing House. 319 pp.
D’Andrea J, Harrison TM, Grove M. 1999. The thermal and physical state of the South Tibetan middle crust between 20–8 Ma: U-Th-Pb and Nd isotopic evidence from the Nyainqentanglha Massif. In14th Himalaya-Karakorum-Tibet Workshop,Abstract volume, pp. 29–30. Germany: Kloster Ettal
Davy Ph, Cobbold P. 1988. Indentation tectonics in nature and experiment, 1. Experiments scaled for gravity.Bull. Geol. Inst., Univ. Uppsala14:129–41
Delvaux D, Moeys R, Stapel G, Petit C, Levi K, et al. 1997. Paleostress reconstructions and geodynamics of the Baikal region, Central Asia, Part 2. Cenozoic rifting.Tectonophysics282:1–38
Deng W. 1989. Cenozoic volcanic rocks in the northern Ngari district of the Tibet—Discussion on the concurrent subduction.Acta Petrol. Sin.3:1–11 (in Chinese)
Deng W. 1996. The ophiolites of the geotraversers from Yecheng to Shiquanhe. InGeological Evolution of the Karakorum and Kunlun Mountains,ed. P Yusheng, pp. 51–93. Beijing: Seismological Press
Deng W. 1998.Cenozoic Intraplate Volcanic Rocks in the Northern Qinghai-Xizang Plateau.Beijing: Geologic Publishing House. 180 pp. (in Chinese with English abstract)
Deng W, Yin J, Guo Z. 1996a. Basic-ultramafic and volcanic rocks in Chagbu-Shuanghu area of northern Xizang (Tibet), China.Sci. China (Series D)39:359–68
Deng W, Zheng X, Matsumoto Y. 1996b. Petrological characteristics and ages of Cenozoic volcanic rocks from the Hoh Xil Mountains, Qinghai.Acta Petrol. Miner.15:289–98 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Dewey JF, Burke K. 1973. Tibetan, Variscan and Precambrian basement reactivation: products of continental collision.J. Geol.81:683–92
1989, Ecol. Geol. Helv., 82, 717
1996, Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap., 305, 1
Ding D, Wang D, Liu W, Sun S. 1996.The Western Kunlun Orogenic Belt and Basin.Beijing: Geologic Publishing House. 230 pp.
Edwards MA, Kidd WSF, Li J, Yue Y, Clark M. 1996. Multi stage development of the southern Tibet detachment system near Khula Kangri. New data from Gonto La.Tectonophys.260:1–20
England P, Houseman G. 1986. Finite strain calculations of continental deformation 2. Comparison with the India-Asia collision zone.J. Geophys. Res.91:3664–76
1998, Sci. Geol. Sin., 33, 300
Fletcher RC, Hallet B. 1983. Unstable extension of the continental lithosphere: a mechanical model for Basin-and-Range structure.J. Geophys. Res.88:7457–66
1991, Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol. Bull., 75, 1427
Gaetani M, Jadoul F, Erba E, Garzanti E. 1993. Jurassic and Cretaceous orogenic events in the North Karakorum: age constraints from sedimentary rocks. InHimalayan Tectonics,ed. PJ Treloar, MP Searle, 74:39–52.Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ.
1989, Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap., 233, 1
Gansser A. 1964.The Geology of the Himalayas.New York: Wiley Interscience. 289 pp.
Gao R, Cheng X, Wu G. 1999b. Lithospheric structure and geodynamic model of the Golmud-Ejin transect in northern Tibet. InHimalaya and Tibet: Mountain Roots to Mountain Tops,ed. A Macfarlane, RB Sorkhabi, J Quade.Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap.328:9–17
Gao R, Li D, Lu D, Li Y, Huang D, et al. 1999a. Deep seismic reflection profiles across contact zone of Western Kunlun and Tarim along the Xinjiang geotransect in NW China. In14th Himalaya-Karakorum-Tibet Workshop,Abstract volume, pp. 49–50. Germany: Kloster Ettal
Gu XX 1994. Geochemical characteristics of the Triassic Tethys-turbidites in northwestern Sichuan, China: implications for provenance and interpretation of the tectonic setting.Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta58:4615–31
Guilbert J, Poupinet G, Jiang M. 1996. A study of azimuthal P wave residuals and shear wave splitting across the Kunlun range (Northern Tibetan Plateau). Phys. Earth Planet. Inter.95:167–74
Hacker BR, Wang X, Eide EA, Ratschbacher L. 1996. The Qinling-Dabie ultra-high pressure collisional orogen. InThe Tectonic Evolution of Asia,ed. A Yin, TM Harrison, pp. 345–70. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
Harrison TM, Copeland P, Kidd WSF, Lovera OM. 1995b. Activation of the Nyainqentanghla shear zone: implications for uplift of the southern Tibetan Plateau.Tectonics14:658–76
Harrison TM, Leloup PH, Ryerson FJ, Tapponnier P, Lacassin R, Chen W. 1996. Diachronous initiation of transtension along the Ailao Shan-Red River shear zone, Yunnan and Vietnam. InThe Tectonic Evolution of Asia,ed. A Yin, TM Harrison, pp. 208–26. New York: Cambridge University Press
Harrison TM, Yin A, Grove M, Lovera OM, Ryerson FJ. 1999b. Displacement history of the Gangdese Thrust, Southeastern Tibet.J. Geophys. Res.In review
Harrison TM, Yin A, Ryerson FJ. 1998a. Orographic evolution of the Himalaya and Tibet. InTectonic Boundary Conditions for Climate Reconstructions,ed. TJ Crowley, K Burke, pp. 39–72. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
Heim A, Gansser A. 1939.Central Himalaya Geological Observations of Swiss Expedition,pp. 1–246. Zurich: Gebruder Fretz
Hennig A. 1915. Zur petrographie und geologie von sudwest Tibet. InSouthern Tibet,Volume 5, ed. S Hedin. Stockholm: Norstedt. 220 pp.
Herquell G, Wittlinger G, Guilbert J. 1995. Anisotropy and crustal thickness of Northern-Tibet. New constraints for tectonic modeling.Geophys. Res. Lett.22:1925–28
Herren E. 1987. Zanskar shear zone: Northeast-southwest extension within the Higher Himalaya.Geology15:409–13
Hodges KV, Parrish RR. Searle MP. 1996. Tectonic evolution of the central Annapurna Range, Nepalese Himalayas.Tectonics15:1264–91
Hou L, Luo D, Fu D, Hu S, Li K. 1991.Triassic Sedimentary-Tectonic Evolution in Western Sichuan and Eastern Xizang Region.Beijing: Geologic Publishing House. 220 pp. (in Chinese with English summary)
Houseman G, England P. 1996. A lithospheric thickening model for the Indo-Asian collision. InThe Tectonic Evolution of Asia,ed. A Yin, TM Harrison, pp. 3–17. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
Hsu K and 15 others. 1995. Tectonic evolution of the Tibetan Plateau: a working hypothesis based on the archipelago model of orogenesis.Int. Geol. Rev.37:473–508
Huang H, Huang Q, Ma Y. 1996. Geology of Qaidam Basin and its Petroleum Prediction.Beijing: Geological Publishing House. 257 pp.
Huang K, Opdyke ND. 1993. Paleomagnetic results from Cretaceous and Jurassic rocks of south and southwest Yunnan: evidence for large clockwise rotations in the Indochina and Shan-Thai-Malay terranes.Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.117:507–24
Hubbard MS. 1996. Ductile shear as a cause of inverted metamorphism: example from the Nepal Himalaya.J. Geol.104:493–99
Hughes NC, Jell PA. 1999. Biostratigraphy and biogeography of Himalayan Cambrian trilobites. InHimalaya and Tibet: Mountain Roots to Mountain Tops,ed. A Macfarlane, RB Sorkhabi.Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap.328:109–16
Jia C. 1997.Tectonic characteristics and petroleum: Tarim Basin, China.Beijing: Petroleum Industry Press. 295 pp.
Jia C, Yao H, Wi G, Li L. 1991. Plate tectonic evolution and characteristics of major tectonic units of the Tarim basin. InThe Tarim Basin,ed. X Tong, D Liang, pp. 207–25. Urumuqi: Xinjiang Scientific Publishing House (in Chinese)
Jiang C, Yang J, Feng B, Zhu Z, Zhao M, et al. 1992.Opening-Closing Tectonics of Kunlun Mountains.Beijing: Geologic Publishing House. 224 pp. (in Chinese with English abstract)
Johnson NM, Stix J, Tauxe L, Cerveny PF, Tahirkheli RAK. 1985. Paleomagnetic chronology, fluvial processes, and tectonic implications of the Siwalik deposits near Chinji Village, PakistanJ. Geol.93:27–40
Kapp P, Murphy MA, Yin A, Ding L. 1999b. Cenozoic shortening along the Banggong-Nujiang suture zone, central Tibet. In14th Himalaya-Karakorum-Tibet Workshop,Abstract volume, pp. 81–83. Germany: Kloster Ettal
1998, EOS, 79, 794
Kapp P, Yin A, Manning CE, Murphy M, Harrison TM, et al. 1999a. Blueschist-bearing metamorphic core complexes in the Qiangtang block reveal deep crustal structure of northern Tibet.Geology.In press
1997, Geol. Soc. Am. Abstr. Prog., 29, 144
Khan MA, Jan Q, Weaver BL. 1993. Evolution of the lower crust in Kohistan, N. Pakistan: temporal arc magmatism through early, mature and intra-arc rift stages. InHimalayan Tectonics,ed. PJ Treloar, MP Searle, 74:123–38.Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ.
1997, Geology, 25, 1279
Klootwijk CT, Conaghan PJ, Nazirullah R, de Jong KA. 1994. Further palaeomagnetic data from Chitral (Eastern Hindukush): evidence for an early India-Asia contact.Tectonophys.237:1–25
Klootwijk CT, Gee FS, Peirce JW, Smith GM, McFadden PL. 1992. An early India contact: paleomagnetic constraints from Ninetyeast Ridge, ODP Leg 121.Geology20:395–98
Kong X, Bird P. 1996. Neotectonics of Asia: thin-shell, finite-element models with faults. InThe Tectonics of Asia,ed. A Yin, TM Harrison, pp. 18–35. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
Lave J, Avouac JP, Laccassin R, Tapponnier P, Montagner JP. 1996. Seismic anisotropy beneath Tibet: evidence for eastward extrusion of the Tibetan lithosphere?Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.140:83–96
Le Fort P. 1975. Himalayas, the collided range. Present knowledge of the continental arc.Am. J. Sci.275A:1–44
Le Fort P. 1986. Metamorphism and magmatism during the Himalayan collision. InCollision Tectonics,ed. MP Coward, AC Ries.Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ.19:159–72
Le Fort P. 1989. The Himalayan orogenic segment. InTectonic Evolution of the Tethyan Region,ed. AMC Sengor, pp. 289–386. Berlin: Kluwer Acad.
Le Fort P. 1996. Evolution of the Himalaya. InThe Tectonics of Asia,ed. A Yin, TM Harrison, pp. 95–106. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
Le Fort P, Debon F, Sonet J. 1983. The lower Palaeozoic “Lesser Himalaya” granitic belt: emphasis on the Simchar pluton of Central Nepal. InGranites of Himalayas, Karakorum and Hindu Kush,ed. FA Shams, pp. 235–53. Lahore: Punjab Univ.
Li C. 1987. The Longmu Co-Shuanghu-Lancangjiang Suture as the northern boundary of the Gandwanaland in the Carboniferous and Permian. Bull. Changcun Coll. Geol. Sci.17:155–66 (in Chinese)
Li C, Liren C, Ke H, Zengrong Y, Yurong H. 1995.Study on the Paleo-Tethys Suture Zone of Lungmu Co-Shuanghu, Tibet.Beijing: Geological Publishing House. 131 pp. (in Chinese with English abstract)
Li C, Zheng A. 1993. Paleozoic stratigraphy in the Qiangtang region of Tibet: relations of the Gandwana and Yangtze continents and ocean closure near the end of the Carboniferous.Int. Geol. Rev.35:797–804
Li CY, Liu Y, Zhu BC, Feng YM, Wu HC. 1978. Structural evolution of Qinling and Qilian Shan. InScientific Papers in Geology and International Exchange,pp. 174–97. Beijing: Geologic Publishing House (in Chinese)
Li CY, Wang Q, Liu X, Tang Y. 1982.Explanatory Notes to the Tectonic Map of Asia.Beijing: Cartographic Publishing House
1996, Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol. Bull., 80, 1587
Liou JG, Zhang RY, Wang X, Eide EA, Ernst WG, Maruyama S. 1996. Metamorphism and tectonics of high-pressure and ultra-high pressure belts in the Dabie-Sulu region, China. InThe Tectonic Evolution of Asia,ed. A Yin, TM Harrison, pp. 300–44. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
Liu ZQ. 1988.Geologic Map of the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau and its Neighboring Regions (scale at 1:1,500,000).Chengdu Institute of Geology and Mineral Resources. Beijing: Geologic Publishing House
Luyendyk BP. 1989. Crustal rotation and fault slip in the continental transform zone in southern California. InPaleomagnetic Rotations and Continental Deformation,ed. C Kissel, C Laj, pp. 229–46. Dordrecht, Holland: Kluwer Acad.
Luyendyk BP, Kamerling MJ, Terres RR, Hornafius JS. 1985. Simple shear of southern California during Neogene time suggested by paleomagnetic declinations. J. Geophys. Res.90:12454–66
Makovsky Y, Klemperer SL. 1999. Measuring the seismic properties of Tibetan bright spots. Evidence for free aqueous fluids in the Tibetan middle crust.J. Geophys. Res.104:10795–825
1998, EOS, 79, 815
Mattauer M. 1986. Intracontinental subduction, crustal stacking wedge and crust-mantle decollement. InCollision Tectonics,ed. MP Coward, AC Ries.Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ.19:37–50
Matte P, Mattauer M, Olivet JM, Griot DA. 1997. Continental subduction beneath Tibet and the Himalayan orogen: a review.Terra Nova9:264–70
Molnar P. 1984. Structure and tectonics of the Himalaya: constraints and implications of geophysical data.Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci.12:489–518
Molnar P, Burchfiel BC, Zhao Z, Lian K, Wang S, Huang M. 1987. Geologic evolution of northern Tibet: results of an expedition to Ulugh Muztagh.Science23:299–305
Murphy MA, Yin A, Kapp P, Harrison TM, Din L, Guo J. 1999. Southward propagation of the Karakoram fault system into southwest Tibet: timing and magnitude of slip.Geology(in review)
Najman Y, Clift P, Johnson MRW, Roberson AHF. 1993. Early stages of foreland basin evolution in the Lesser Himalaya, N. India. InHimalayan Tectonics,ed. PJ Treloar, MP Searle.Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ.74:541–58
Najman YMR, Enkin RJ, Johnson MRW, Robertson AHF, Baker J. 1994. Paleomagnetic dating of the earliest continental Himalayan foredeep sediments: implications for Himalayan evolution.Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.128:713–18
Nakata T. 1989. Active faults of the Himalaya in India and Nepal. InTectonics of the Western Himalaya,ed. LL Malinconico, RJ Lillie.Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap.232:243–64
Nelson KD and 27 others. 1996. Partially molten middle crust beneath Southern Tibet: synthesis of Project INDEPTH results.Science274:1684–96
Ni J, Barazangi M. 1984. Seismotectonics of the Himalayan collision zone: geometry of the underthrusting Indian plate beneath the Himalaya.J. Geophys. Res.89:1147–63
Pan Y. 1990. Tectonic features and evolution of the western Kunlun Mountain region.Sci. Geol. Sin.3:224–32 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Pan Y. 1993. Unroofing history and structural evolution of the southern Lhasa terrane, Tibetan Plateau: implications for the continental collision between India and Asia. Ph.D. dissertation. State Univ. New York, Albany
Pan Y. 1996. Regional geologic evolution and conclusion. InGeologic Evolution of the Karakorum and Kunlun Mountains,ed. P Yunsheng, pp. 263–88. Beijing: Seismological Press
1993, Geol. Soc. Am. Abstr. Progr., 25, A174
Peltzer G, Tapponnier P. 1988. Formation and evolution of strike-slip faults, rifts, and basins during the India-Asia collision: an experimental approach.J. Geophys. Res.93:15085–117
Powell RE. 1993. Balanced palinspastic reconstruction of pre-Late Cenozoic paleogeology, southern Californa: geologic and kinematic constraints on evolution of the San Andreas fault system. InThe San Andreas Fault System: Displacement, Palinspastic Reconstruction, and Geologic Evolution,ed. RE Powell, RJ Weldon II, JC Matti.Geol. Soc. Am. Mem.178:1–106
Price RA. 1981. The Cordilleran foreland thrust and fold belt in the southern Canadian Rocky Mountains. InThrust and Nappe Tectonics,ed. MP Coward, KR McClay.Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ.9:427–48
Qinghai BGMR (Qinghai Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources). 1991. Regional Geology of Qinghai Province.Beijing: Geological Publishing House. 662 pp.
Quade J, Cater JLM, Ojha TP, Adam J, Harrison TM. 1995. Late Miocene environmental change in Nepal and the northern Indian subcontinent: stable isotope evidence from paleosols.Geol. Soc. Am. Bull.107:1381–97
Rao R, Xu J, Chen Y, Zou D. 1987.The Triassic System of the Qianghai-Xizang Plateau.Beijing: Geological Publishing House. 239 pp.
Ratschbacher L, Frisch W, Chen C, Pan G. 1996. Cenozoic deformation, rotation, and stress patterns in eastern Tibet and western Sichuan, China. InThe Tectonic Evolution of Asia,ed. A Yin, TM Harrison, pp. 227–49. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
1994, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 19817
Rowley DB. 1996. Age of collision between India and Asia: a review of the stratigraphic data.Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.145:1–13
1998, J. Geol., 106, 229
Richter FM, Lovera OM, Harrison TM, Copeland P. 1991. Tibetan tectonics from a single feldspar sample: an application of the40Ar/39Ar method.Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.105:266–76
Royden L. 1996. Coupling and decoupling of crust and mantle in convergent orogens: implications for strain partitioning in the crust.J. Geophys. Res.101:17679–705
Rumelhart P, Yin A, Butler R, Cowgill E, Zhang Q, Wang X. 1999. Cenozoic vertical-axis rotation of southern Tarim: constraints on the tectonic evolution of the Altyn Tagh fault system.Geology27:819–22
Rumelhart PA. 1998.Cenozoic basin evolution of southern Tarim, northwestern China: implications for the uplift history of the Tibetan Plateau.Ph.D thesis. Univ. Calif., Los Angeles
Ryerson FJ, Peltzer G, Tapponnier P, Finkel RC, Meriaux A, Caffee MW. 1999. Slip-rates on the Karakax valley segment of the Altyn Tagh fault: constraints from surface dating. In14th Himalaya-Karakorum-Tibet Workshop,Abstract volume, pp. 185–86. Germany: Kloster Ettal
Schelling D. 1992. The tectonostratigraphy and structure of the eastern Nepal Himalaya.Tectonics11925–43
Searle MP. 1991.Geology and Tectonics of the Karakoram Mountains.New York: Wiley. 358 pp.
Searle MP. 1996. Cooling history, erosion, exhumation, and kinematics of the Himalaya-Karakoram-Tibet orogenic belt. InThe Tectonic Evolution of Asia,ed. A Yin, TM Harrison, pp. 110–37. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
Searle MP, Parrish RR, Hodges KV, Hurford A, Ayres MW, Whitehouse MJ. 1997. Shisha Pangma leucogranite, south Tibetan Himalaya: field relations, geochemistry, age, origin, and emplacement.J. Geol.105:295–317
Searle MP, Weinberg RF, Dunlap WJ. 1998. Transpressional tectonics along the Karakoram fault zone, northern Ladakh: constraints on Tibetan extrusion. InContinental Transpressional and Transtensional Tectonics,ed. RE Holdsworth, RA Strachan, JF Dewey.Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ.135:307–26
1984, Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap., 195, 1
Sengor AMC. 1990. Plate tectonics and orogenic research after 25 years: a Tethyan perspective.Earth Sci. Rev.27:1–201
Sengor AMC, Natal’in BA. 1996. Paleotectonics of Asia: fragments of a synthesis. InThe Tectonics of Asia,ed. A Yin, TM Harrison, pp. 486–640. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
Sengor AMC, Okurogullari AH. 1991. The role of accretionary wedge in the growth of continents: Asiatic examples from Argand to plate tectonics.Ecol. Geol. Helv.84:535–97
Shen Z, Zhao C, Yin A, Li C, Jackson DD, et al. 1999. Contemporary crustal deformation in east Asia constrained by Global Positioning Measurements.J. Geophys. Res.In press
Silver PG. 1996. Seismic anisotropy beneath the continents: probing the depths of geology.Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci.24:385–432
Song T, Wang X. 1993. Structural styles and stratigraphic patterns of syndepositional faults in a contractional setting: example from Quaidam basin, northwestern China.Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol. Bull.77:102–17
Srivastava P, Mitra G. 1994. Thrust geometries and deep structure of the outer and lesser Himalaya, Kumaon and Garwal (India): implications for evolution of the Himalayan fold-and-thrust belt.Tectonics13:89–109
Strecker MR, Frisch W, Hamburger MW, Ratschbacher L, Semiletkin S, et al. 1995. Quaternary deformation in the eastern Pamirs, Tadzhikistan and Kyrgyzstan,Tectonics14:1061–79
Sullivan MA, Windley BF, Saunders AD, Haynes JR, Rex DC. 1993. A palaeogeographic reconstruction of the Dir Group: evidence for magmatic arc migration within Kohistan, N. Pakistan. InHimalayan Tectonics,ed. PJ Treloar, MP Searle.Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ.74:139–60
Tapponnier P, Lacassin R, Leloup PH, Schärer U, Zhong D, et al. 1990. The Ailao Shan/Red River metamorphic belt: Tertiary left-lateral shear between Indochina and South China.Nature343:431–37
Tapponnier P, Peltzer G, Armijo R. 1986. On the mechanics of the collision between India and Asia. InCollision Tectonics,ed. MP Coward, AC Ries.Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ.19:115–57
Tapponnier P, Peltzer G, Le Dain AY, Armijo R, Cobbold P. 1982. Propagating extrusion tectonics in Asia: new insights from simple experiments with plasticine.Geology10:611–16
Tonarini S, Villa I, Oberli F, Meier M, Spencer DA, et al. 1993. Eocene age of eclogite metamorphism in Pakistan Himalaya: implications for India-Eurasia collision.Terra Nova5:13–20
Turner S, Arnaud N, Liu J, Rogers N, Hawkesworth CJ, et al. 1996. Post-collision, shoeshonitic volcanism on the Tibetan plateau: implications for convective thinning of the lithosphere and the source of ocean island basalts.J. Petrol.37:45–71
van der Beek P. 1997. Flank uplift and topography at the central Baikal Rift (SE Siberia): a test of kinematic models for continental extension.Tectonics16:122–36
1987, Bull. Chengdu Coll. Geol. Sci., 14, 33
1998, Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap., 327, 1
Wang N, Yang J, Xia Z, Me D, Li Y, Pan M. 1996.Cenozoic Sedimentation and Tectonic Geomorphology of the Shanxi Graben.Beijing: Chinese Science Publishing House. 400 pp.
Wang S, Li Z, Qiangba X. 1983. Unpublished geologic map (1:1,000,000) and geologic report of the Xigaze area, Xizang Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources, 568 pp.
Wang T. 1996. Characteristics of sedimentary rocks and their environmental evolution. InGeological Evolution of the Karakorum and Kunlun Mountains,ed. P Yusheng, pp. 22–50. Beijing: Seismological Press
Worley B, Powell R, Wilson CJL. 1997. Crenulation cleavage formation: evolving diffusion, deformation and equilibration mechanisms with increasing metamorphic grade.J. Struct. Geol.19:1121–35
Worley BA, Wilson CJL. 1996. Deformation partitioning and foliation reactivation during transpressional orogenesis, an example from the Central Longmen Shan, China. J. Struct. Geol.18:395–411
Xia L, Xia Z, Xu X. 1996.Origin of the Oceanic Island Arc System in the Northern Qilian Shan.Beijing: Geological Publishing House. 153 pp.
1978, Acta Geol. Sin., 52, 281
Xie G, Liu C, Zheng T. 1992. Geochemical characteristics of Cenozoic volcanic rocks along the rim of the Tibetan plateau—evidence for ancient enriched mantle. InMesozoic and Cenozoic Volcanic Rocks and Their Geochemical Characteristics,ed. Liu Rouxing, pp. 100–27. Beijing: Seismological Press
Xinjiang BGMR (Xinjiang Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources). 1989.Regional Geology of the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region.Beijing: Geological Publishing House
Xizang BGMR (Xizang Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources). 1992. Regional Geology of the Xizang Autonomous Region.Beijing: Geological Publishing House
Xu R, Zhang Y, Xie Y, Vidal Ph, Arnaud N, et al. 1996. Isotopic geochemistry of plutonic rocks. InGeological Evolution of the Karakorum and Kunlun Mountains,ed. P Yusheng, pp. 137–86. Beijing: Seismological Press
Xu RH. 1990. Age and geochemistry of granites and metamorphic rocks in south-central Xizang (Tibet). InIgneous and Metamorphic Rocks of the Tibetan Plateau,ed. Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, pp. 287–302. Beijing: Science Press
Xu RH, Schärer U, Allègre CJ. 1985. Magmatism and metamorphism in the Lhasa block (Tibet): a geochronological study.J. Geol.93:41–57
Xu Z, Mei J, Yang J, Zhao G, Cui J, et al. 1998. Mantle diapir and inward intracontinental subduction: a discussion on the mechanism of uplift of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. InHimalaya and Tibet: Mountain Roots to Mountain Tops,ed. A Macfarlane, RB Sorkhabi, J Quade.Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap.328:19–31
Yin A. 1999. Mode of Cenozoic east-west extension in Tibet suggests a common origin of rifts in Asia during the Indo-Asian collision.J. Geophys. Res.In review
1998, Eos, 79, 816
Yin A, Kapp PA, Murphy M, Manning C, Harrison TM. 1998b. Evidence for large scale underthrusting (>250 km) of Lhasa beneath Qiangtang during the Indo-Asian collision: implications for the deep-crustal structures in Tibet and uplift mechanisms. Geol. Soc. Am. Abstr. Progr.30:A353
1997, Eos, 78, F173
Yin A, Murphy MA, Harrison TM, Ryerson FJ, Chen Z, et al. 1996. Miocene evolution of the Kailas thrust and Gurla Mandhata detachment fault, western Tibet: implications for the displacement history of the Karakorum fault. In11th Himalaya-Karakorum-Tibet Workshop,Abstract volume, Flagstaff, Arizona, pp. 173–74
Yin A, Nie S. 1996. A Phanerozoic palinspastic reconstruction of China and its neighboring regions. InThe Tectonics of Asia,ed. A Yin, TM Harrison, pp. 442–85. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
Yin A, Wang X, Harrison TM, Cowgill E, Rumelhart P, et al. 1999b. Preliminary results from a collaborative geologic investigation of the Altyn Tagh Fault, North Tibet. In14th Himalaya-Karakorum-Tibet Workshop,Abstract volume, pp. 185–86. Germany: Kloster Ettal
Yin J. 1997.Stratigraphic Geology of Gandwanan Facies of Qinghai-Xiang (Tibet) Plateau and Adjacent Areas.Beijing: Geologic Publishing House. 206 pp.
Yin J, Bian Q. 1992.Geologic Map of the Karakorum-Western Kunlun and Adjacent Regions (1:2M).Beijing: Science Press
Yin J, Xu J, Liu C, Li H. 1988. The Tibetan plateau: regional stratigraphic context and previous work.Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond.A327:5–52
Yu Z, Zheng A-Z. 1979.Unpublished geologic map of the Lhasa region at a scale of 1:1,000,000 and geologic report,Xizang Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources, p. 284 (in Chinese)
1998, Sci. Geol. Sin., 33, 257
1998, Sci. Geol. Sin., 33, 290
Zhang M, Hu C, Wu R. 1985. Geochemical characteristics and tectonic setting of the Xiangqiong-Casang mafic volcanic belt. InGeologic Research on the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau Publication no. 9,pp. 57–68. Beijing: Geological Publishing House
Zhang Y, Zheng J. 1994.Geologic Overview in Kokshili, Qinghai and Adjacent Areas.Beijing: Seismological Publishing House. 177 pp.
Zhao W, Morgan WJ. 1987. Injection of Indian crust into Tibetan lower crust: a two-dimensional finite element model study.Tectonics6:489–504
Zhong D. 1998.Paleotethyan Orogenic Belts in Yunan and Western Sichuan.Beijing: Science Publishing House. 230 pp.
1993, Geol. Soc. Am. Abstr. with Programs, 25, A118
Zhou D, Graham SA. 1996. The Songpan-Ganzi complex of the western Qinling Shan as a Triassic remnant ocean basin. InThe Tectonic Evolution of Asia,ed. A Yin, TM Harrison. pp. 281–99. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press