Gentrification and Segregated Wealth in Rural America: Home Value Sorting in Destination Counties
Tóm tắt
The term “gentrification” carries conflicting popular connotations, conjuring images of both revitalization and displacement. Despite a rich critical literature from urban social scientists, gentrification as it relates to rural housing and rural development is a similarly conflicted term. With the frequent conflation of rural gentrification and economic improvement, researchers and policy-makers alike need more nuanced techniques for identifying how the process distributes costs and benefits across households. This paper operationalizes rural gentrification as a specific demographic pattern of household migration, termed the “Rural Gentrification Score,” and maps its footprint between 1980 and 2000 in 25 US states. It then uses census data to better understand the impacts of rural gentrification on home values in rural counties, interrogating the popular notion that homeowners benefit from gentrification. Using comparative analyses, two related hypotheses about rural gentrification and inequality are explored: (1) that gentrified rural counties were susceptible to greater home value segregation and (2) that over time gentrification’s spread culminated in greater homogeneity of home values. Results support each of these hypotheses and point to nuances in the relationship between population turnover, inequality, and socioeconomic context. Most notably the findings highlight a spatial and temporal pattern of widening wealth inequality in gentrifying rural counties.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Aspen/Pitkin County Housing Authority (2013). Aspen/Pitkin County affordable housing guidelines. www.apcha.org/GUIDELINES%202013/2013%20Guidelines.pdf. Accessed 20 April 2014.
Atkinson, R. (2000). Measuring gentrification and displacement in Greater London. Urban Studies, 37(1), 149–165.
Beale, C. L. (1975). The revival of population growth in nonmetropolitan America. Washington, DC: Economic Research Service.
Beauregard, R. A. (1990). Trajectories of neighborhood change: the case of gentrification. Environment and Planning A, 22(7), 855–874.
Beyers, W. B., & Nelson, P. B. (2000). Contemporary development forces in the nonmetropolitan West: New insights from rapidly growing communities. Journal of Rural Studies, 16(4), 459–474.
Bjorvatn, K. (2003). Inequality, segregation, and redistribution. Journal of Public Economics, 87(7–8), 1657–1679. doi:10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00202-X.
Brasier, K. J., Filteau, M. R., McLaughlin, D. K., Jacquet, J., Stedman, R. C., Kelsey, T. W., & Goetz, S. J. (2011). Residents’ perceptions of community and environmental impacts from development of natural gas in the Marcellus Shale: a comparison of Pennsylvania and New York cases. Journal of Rural Social Sciences, 26(1), 32–61.
Bryson, J., & Wyckoff, W. (2010). Rural gentrification and nature in the Old and New Wests. Journal of Cultural Geography, 27(1), 53–75. doi:10.1080/08873631003593232.
Cadwallader, M. T. (1992). Migration and residential mobility: Macro and micro approaches (p. 275). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
Case, A. C., & Katz, L. F. (1991). The company you keep: The effects of family and neighborhood on disadvantaged youths. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
Clay, P. L. (1979). Neighborhood renewal: Middle-class resettlement and incumbent upgrading in American neighborhoods. New York: Free Press.
Conley, D. (1999). Being black, living in the red race: Wealth, and social policy in America (p. 217). Berkeley: University of California Press.
Cromartie, J. B., & Nelson, P. B. (2006). Shifting demographics and rural entrepreneurship in rural America. In RUPRI-ERS Conference: Exploring Rural Entrepreneurship: Imperatives and Opportunities for Research (pp. 1–11). Washington, DC.
Dolbeare, C. (1999). Conditions and trends in rural housing. Housing in Rural America: Building Affordable and Inclusive Communities, 7, 13–26.
Foulkes, M., & Newbold, B. K. (2008). Poverty catchments: migration, residential mobility, and population turnover in impoverished rural illinois communities. Rural Sociology, 73(3), 440–462.
Foulkes, M., & Schafft, K. A. (2010). The impact of migration on poverty concentrations in the United States, 1995–2000. Rural Sociology, 75(1), 90–110.
Freeman, L., & Braconi, F. (2002). Gentrification and displacement. The Urban Prospect, 8(1), 1–4.
Freeman, L., & Braconi, F. (2004). Gentrification and displacement: New York City in the 1990s. Journal of the American Planning Association, 70(1), 39–52.
Fuguitt, G. V. (1985). The nonmetropolitan population turnaround. Annual Review of Sociology, 11(1), 259–280.
Gates, D., & Pryor, T. (1993). Chic comes to Crested Butte. Newsweek, 122, 26–45.
Ghelfi, L. (2002). Rural earnings up in 2000, but much less than urban earnings. Rural America, 17(4), 78–83.
Ghose, R. (2004). Big sky or big sprawl? Rural gentrification and the changing cultural landscape of Missoula, Montana. Urban Geography, 25(6), 528–549.
Golding, S. A. (2014). Moving narratives: Using online forums to study amenity out-migration in the American Midwest. Journal of Rural Studies, 33, 32–40.
Greenwood, M. J. (1981). Migration and economic growth in the United States: National, regional and metropolitan perspectives (studies in urban economics) (p. 233). New York: Academic Press Inc.
Hammer, R. B., & Winkler, R. L. (2006). Housing affordability and population chang in the upper midwestern north woods. In W. A. Kandel & D. L. Brown (Eds.), population change and rural society (pp. 293–309). Dordrecht: Springer.
Hamnett, C. (1984). Gentrification and residential location theory: A review and assessment. Geography and the Urban Environment: Progress in Research and Applications, 6, 283–319.
Harvey, E. B. (2010). Land use planning on a grand scale: A decision maker’s perspective. Maine Policy Review, 19(1), 70–73.
Hawley, A. H. (1971). Urban society: An ecological approach. New York: Ronald Press Co.
Hettinger, W. S. (2004). Living and working in paradise: Why housing is too expensive and what communities can do about it (p. 208). Windham: Thames River Publishing.
Housing Assistance Council, H. A. (2005). They paved paradise gentrification in Rural Communities.
Hunter, L. M., Boardman, J. D., & Saint Onge, J. M. (2005). The association between natural amenities, rural population growth, and long-term residents’ economic well-being. Rural Sociology, 70(4), 452–469.
Janofsky, M. (1999). Housing for poorer neighbors offends Vail’s rich. The New York Times, 14, 195–196.
Jargowsky, P. A. (1996). Take the money and run: Economic segregation in US metropolitan areas. American Sociological Review, 61(6), 984–998.
Jargowsky, P. A., & Kim, J. (2005). A measure of spatial segregation: The generalized neighborhood sorting index. Richardson: University of Texas at Dallas.
Johnson, K. M., Nucci, A., & Long, L. (2005). Population trends in metropolitan and nonmetropolitan America: selective deconcentration and the rural rebound. Population Research and Policy Review, 24(5), 527–542.
Lee, Barrett, & Hodge, David. (1984). Spatial differentials in residential displacement. Urban Studies, 21(3), 219–231.
Logan, J. R., & Molotch, H. L. (1988). Urban fortunes: The political economy of place (p. 383). California: University of California Press.
Nelson, P. B., Oberg, A., & Nelson, L. (2010). Rural gentrification and linked migration in the United States. Journal of Rural Studies, 26(4), 343–352.
Park, L. S. H., & Pellow, D. N. (2011). The slums of Aspen: Immigrants versus the environment in America’s Eden. New York: NYU Press.
Plane, D. A., & Rogerson, P. A. (1991). Tracking the baby boom, the baby bust, and the echo generations: How age composition regulates US migration. The Professional Geographer, 43(4), 416–430.
Ploch, L. R., & Cook, C. M. (1982). Turnaround migration and theoretical perspectives. The Rural Sociologist, 2, 36–44.
Ravenstein, E. G. (1885). The laws of migration. Journal of the Statistical Society of London, 48(2), 167–235. doi:10.2307/2979181.
Saint Onge, J. M., Hunter, L. M., & Boardman, J. D. (2007). Population growth in high-amenity rural areas: Does it bring socioeconomic benefits for long-term residents? Social Science Quarterly, 88(2), 366–381.
Salamon, S. (2007). Newcomers to old towns: Suburbanization of the heartland. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Schafft, K. A. (2006). Poverty, residential mobility, and student transiency within a Rural New York School District. Rural Sociology, 71(2), 212–231.
Slater, T. (2006). The eviction of critical perspectives from gentrification research. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 30(4), 737–757.
Smith, D. (2007). The changing faces of rural populations:’(re) Fixing” the gaze’ or “eyes wide shut”? Journal of Rural Studies, 23, 275–282.
USDA Economic Research Service. (2003). Rural education at a glance. Washington, DC: USDA.
Vias, A. C. (1999). Jobs follow people in the rural Rocky Mountain West. Rural Development Perspectives, 14, 14–23.
Watson, T. (2009). Inequality and the measurement of residential segregation by income in American neighborhoods. Review of Income and Wealth, 55(3), 820–844. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4991.2009.00346.x.
Wilson, W. J. (1990). The truly disadvantaged: The Inner City, the underclass, and public policy (p. 261). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Winkler, R. L. (2010). Rural destinations, uneven development and social exclusion. Dissertations, University of Wisconsin at Madison, Madison.
Winkler, R., Cheng, C., & Golding, S. (2011). Boom or bust? How migration impacts population composition in different types of natural resource dependent communities in the rural US. In L. J. Kulcsar & K. J. Curtis (Eds.), International handbook of rural demography. New York: Springer.