Gender differences in lipoprotein metabolism and dietary response: Basis in hormonal differences and implications for cardiovascular disease

Knopp RH: Drug treatment of lipid disorders. N Engl J Med 1999, 341:498–511.

Knopp R, Zhu XD, Lau J, Walden C: Sex hormones and lipid interactions: implications for cardiovascular disease in women. Endocrinologist 1994, 4:286–301.

Mendelsohn ME, Karas RH: Molecular and cellular basis of cardiovascular gender differences. Science 2005, 308:1583–1587.

Seed M, Knopp RH: Estrogens, lipoproteins, and cardiovascular risk factors: an update following the randomized placebo-controlled trials of hormone-replacement therapy. Curr Opin Lipidol 2004, 15:459–467.

Knopp R, Bonet B, Zhu XD: Lipid metabolism in pregnancy. In Principles of Perinatal-Neonatal Metabolism, edn 2. Edited by Cowett R. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag; 1998:221–258.

Merimee TJ, Fineberg SE: Homeostasis during fasting. II. Hormone substrate differences between men and women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1973, 37:698–702.

Kushlan MC, Gollan JL, Ma WL, Ockner RK: Sex differences in hepatic uptake of long chain fatty acids in single-pass perfused rat liver. J Lipid Res 1981, 22:431–436.

Mittendorfer B, Patterson BW, Klein S: Effect of sex and obesity on basal VLDL-triacylglycerol kinetics. Am J Clin Nutr 2003, 77:573–579.

Tollin C, Ericsson M, Johnson O, Backman C: Clearance of triglycerides from the circulation and its relationship to serum lipoproteins: influence of age and sex. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1985, 45:679–684.

Maehira F, Miyagi I, Eguchi Y: Sex- and age-related variations in the in vitro heparin-releasable lipoprotein lipase from mononuclear leukocytes in blood. Biochim Biophys Acta 1990, 1042:344–351.

Ma PT, Yamamoto T, Goldstein JL, Brown MS: Increased mRNA for low density lipoprotein receptor in livers of rabbits treated with 17 alpha-ethinyl estradiol. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1986, 83:792–796.

Tilly-Kiesi M, Lichtenstein AH, Joven J, et al.: Impact of gender on the metabolism of apolipoprotein A-I in HDL subclasses LpAI and LpAI:AII in older subjects. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1997, 17:3513–3518.

Applebaum-Bowden D, McLean P, Steinmetz A, et al.: Lipoprotein, apolipoprotein, and lipolytic enzyme changes following estrogen administration in postmenopausal women. J Lipid Res 1989, 30:1895–1906.

Zambon A, Hokanson JE, Brown BG, Brunzell JD: Evidence for a new pathophysiological mechanism for coronary artery disease regression: hepatic lipase-mediated changes in LDL density. Circulation 1999, 99:1959–1964.

Walden CE, Knopp RH, Wahl PW, et al.: Sex differences in the effect of diabetes mellitus on lipoprotein triglyceride and cholesterol concentrations. N Engl J Med 1984, 311:953–959.

Knopp R, Broyles F, Bonet B, Walden C: Exaggerated lipoprotein abnormalities in diabetic women compared to diabetic men: possible significance for arteriosclerosis. In Cardiovascular Health and Disease in Women. Edited by Wenger NK, Speroff L, Packard B. Greenwich, CT: LeJacq Communications; 1993:131–138.

Siegel RD, Cupples A, Schaefer EJ, Wilson PW: Lipoproteins, apolipoproteins, and low-density lipoprotein size among diabetics in the Framingham offspring study. Metabolism 1996, 45:1267–1272.

Aikawa K, Retzlaff B, Fish B, et al.: Dyslipidemia of insulin resistance and obesity: gender differences. Circulation 2002, 106(suppl II):II-75.

Barrett-Connor E, Giardina EG, Gitt AK, et al.: Women and heart disease: the role of diabetes and hyperglycemia. Arch Intern Med 2004, 164:934–942.

Gordon DJ, Probstfield JL, Garrison RJ, et al.: High-density lipoprotein cholesterol and cardiovascular disease. Four prospective American studies. Circulation 1989, 79:8–15.

Reardon MF, Nestel PJ, Craig IH, Harper RW: Lipoprotein predictors of the severity of coronary artery disease in men and women. Circulation 1985, 71:881–888.

Walden CE, Retzlaff BM, Buck BL, et al.: Lipoprotein lipid response to the National Cholesterol Education Program step II diet by hypercholesterolemic and combined hyperlipidemic women and men. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1997, 17:375–382.

Walden CE, Retzlaff BM, Buck BL, et al.: Differential effect of National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Step II diet on HDL cholesterol, its subfractions, and apoprotein A-I levels in hypercholesterolemic women and men after 1 year: the beFIT Study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2000, 20:1580–1587.

Li Z, Otvos JD, Lamon-Fava S, et al.: Men and women differ in lipoprotein response to dietary saturated fat and cholesterol restriction. J Nutr 2003, 133:3428–3433.

Clifton PM, Nestel PJ: Influence of gender, body mass index, and age on response of plasma lipids to dietary fat plus cholesterol. Arterioscler Thromb 1992, 12:955–962.

Ahrens EH Jr, Hirsch J, Oette K, et al.: Carbohydrate-induced and fat-induced lipemia. Trans Med Soc Lond 1961, 74:134–146.

Antonis A, Bersohn I: Serum-triglyceride levels in South African Europeans and Bantu and in ischaemic heart-disease. Lancet 1960, 1:998–1002.

Cahlin E, Jonsson J, Persson B, et al.: Sucrose feeding in man. Effects of substrate incorporation into hepatic triglycerides and phosphoglycerides in vitro and on removal of intravenous fat in patients with hyperlipoproteinemia. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1973, 32:21–33.

Ahrens EH Jr: Sterol balance in hyperlipidemic patients after dietary exchange of carbohydrate for fat. J Lipid Res 1976, 17:97–106.

Schonfeld G, Weidman SW, Witztum JL, Bowen RM: Alterations in levels and interrelations of plasma apolipoproteins induced by diet. Metabolism 1976, 25:261–275.

Mensink RP, Katan MB: Effect of monounsaturated fatty acids versus complex carbohydrates on high-density lipoproteins in healthy men and women. Lancet 1987, 1:122–125.

Mensink RP, Katan MB: Effect of a diet enriched with monounsaturated or polyunsaturated fatty acids on levels of low-density and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in healthy women and men. N Engl J Med 1989, 321:436–441.

Geil PB, Anderson JW, Gustafson NJ: Women and men with hypercholesterolemia respond similarly to an American Heart Association step 1 diet. J Am Diet Assoc 1995, 95:436–441.

Schaefer EJ, Lamon-Fava S, Ausman LM, et al.: Individual variability in lipoprotein cholesterol response to National Cholesterol Education Program Step 2 diets. Am J Clin Nutr 1997, 65:823–830.

Knopp RH, Retzlaff B, Fish B, et al.: Effects of insulin resistance and obesity on lipoproteins and sensitivity to egg feeding. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2003, 23:1437–1443.

Ginsberg HN, Karmally W, Siddiqui M, et al.: Increases in dietary cholesterol are associated with modest increases in both LDL and HDL cholesterol in healthy young women. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1995, 15:169–178.

Ferro-Luzzi A, Strazzullo P, Scaccini C, et al.: Changing the Mediterranean diet: effects on blood lipids. Am J Clin Nutr 1984, 40:1027–1037.

Cobb M, Greenspan J, Timmons M, Teitelbaum H: Gender differences in lipoprotein responses to diet. Ann Nutr Metab 1993, 37:225–236.

Wood PD, Stefanick ML, Williams PT, Haskell WL: The effects on plasma lipoproteins of a prudent weight-reducing diet, with or without exercise, in overweight men and women. N Engl J Med 1991, 325:461–466.

Stefanick ML, Mackey S, Sheehan M, et al.: Effects of diet and exercise in men and postmenopausal women with low levels of HDL cholesterol and high levels of LDL cholesterol. N Engl J Med 1998, 339:12–20.

Taskinen MR, Kuusi T: High density lipoproteins in postprandial lipemia. Relation to sex and lipoprotein lipase activity. Atherosclerosis 1986, 59:121–130.

Ohta T, Ikeda Y, Nakamura R, Matsuda I: Lipoprotein-containing apolipoprotein A-I: sex-related quantitative and qualitative changes in this lipoprotein subspecies after ingestion of fat. Am J Clin Nutr 1992, 56:404–409.

Cheung MC, Knopp RH, Retzlaff B, et al.: Association of plasma phospholipid transfer protein activity with IDL and buoyant LDL: impact of gender and adiposity. Biochim Biophys Acta 2002, 1587:53–59.

Simonen P, Gylling H, Howard AN, Miettinen TA: Introducing a new component of the metabolic syndrome: low cholesterol absorption. Am J Clin Nutr 2000, 72:82–88.

Robbesyn F, Auge N, Vindis C, et al.: High-density lipoproteins prevent the oxidized low-density lipoprotein-induced endothelial growth factor receptor activation and subsequent matrix metalloproteinase-2 upregulation. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2005, 25:1206–1212.

Getz GS, Reardon CA: Paraoxonase, a cardioprotective enzyme: continuing issues. Curr Opin Lipidol 2004, 15:261–267.