Galectin-3 regulates microglial activation and promotes inflammation through TLR4/MyD88/NF-kB in experimental autoimmune uveitis

Rothova, 1992, Uveitis and systemic disease, Br. J. Ophthalmol., 76, 137, 10.1136/bjo.76.3.137 Hou, 2020, Uveitis genetics, Exp. Eye Res., 190, 10.1016/j.exer.2019.107853 Hou, 2014, Genome-wide association analysis of Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome identifies two new susceptibility loci at 1p31.2 and 10q21.3, Nat. Genet., 46, 1007, 10.1038/ng.3061 Tsirouki, 2018, A focus on the epidemiology of uveitis, Ocul. Immunol. Inflamm., 26, 2, 10.1080/09273948.2016.1196713 Rao, 2013, Uveitis in developing countries, Indian J. Ophthalmol., 61, 253, 10.4103/0301-4738.114090 Suttorp-Schulten, 1996, The possible impact of uveitis in blindness: a literature survey, Br. J. Ophthalmol., 80, 844, 10.1136/bjo.80.9.844 Agarwal, 2012, Rodent models of experimental autoimmune uveitis, Methods Mol. Biol., 900, 443, 10.1007/978-1-60761-720-4_22 Bousquet, 2011, Protective effect of intravitreal administration of tresperimus, an immunosuppressive drug, on experimental autoimmune uveoretinitis, Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci., 52, 5414, 10.1167/iovs.10-6740 Lipski, 2017, MHC class II expression and potential antigen-presenting cells in the retina during experimental autoimmune uveitis, J. Neuroinflammation, 14, 136, 10.1186/s12974-017-0915-5 Miura-Takeda, 2008, Experimental autoimmune uveoretinitis initiated by non-phagocytic destruction of inner segments of photoreceptor cells by mac-1(+) mononuclear cells, Microbiol. Immunol., 52, 601, 10.1111/j.1348-0421.2008.00077.x Rao, 2003, Pathogenic role of retinal microglia in experimental uveoretinitis, Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci., 44, 22, 10.1167/iovs.02-0199 Okunuki, 2019, Retinal microglia initiate neuroinflammation in ocular autoimmunity, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 116, 9989, 10.1073/pnas.1820387116 Langmann, 2007, Microglia activation in retinal degeneration, J. Leukoc. Biol., 81, 1345, 10.1189/jlb.0207114 Ling, 1973, Investigation of glial cells in semithin sections. II. Variation with age in the numbers of the various glial cell types in rat cortex and corpus callosum, J. Comp. Neurol., 149, 73, 10.1002/cne.901490105 Rathnasamy, 2019, Retinal microglia - a key player in healthy and diseased retina, Prog. Neurobiol., 173, 18, 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2018.05.006 Chen, 2002, Distribution, markers, and functions of retinal microglia, Ocul. Immunol. Inflamm., 10, 27, 10.1076/ocii.10.1.27.10328 Ransohoff, 2016, How neuroinflammation contributes to neurodegeneration, Science, 353, 777, 10.1126/science.aag2590 Madeira, 2015, Contribution of microglia-mediated neuroinflammation to retinal degenerative diseases, Mediat. Inflamm., 2015, 10.1155/2015/673090 Block, 2007, Microglia-mediated neurotoxicity: uncovering the molecular mechanisms, Nat. Rev. Neurosci., 8, 57, 10.1038/nrn2038 Burguillos, 2015, Microglia-secreted Galectin-3 acts as a toll-like receptor 4 ligand and contributes to microglial activation, Cell Rep., 10, 1626, 10.1016/j.celrep.2015.02.012 Shimura, 2004, Galectin-3, a novel binding partner of beta-catenin, Cancer Res., 64, 6363, 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-04-1816 Rahimian, 2018, Galectin-3: mediator of microglia responses in injured brain, Drug Discov. Today, 23, 375, 10.1016/j.drudis.2017.11.004 Shin, 2013, The pleiotropic effects of galectin-3 in neuroinflammation: a review, Acta Histochem., 115, 407, 10.1016/j.acthis.2012.11.010 Lalancette-Hebert, 2012, Galectin-3 is required for resident microglia activation and proliferation in response to ischemic injury, J. Neurosci., 32, 10383, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1498-12.2012 Dumic, 2006, Galectin-3: an open-ended story, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1760, 616, 10.1016/j.bbagen.2005.12.020 Sano, 2003, Critical role of galectin-3 in phagocytosis by macrophages, J. Clin. Invest., 112, 389, 10.1172/JCI200317592 Jaquenod De Giusti, 2011, Galectin-3 is upregulated in activated glia during Junin virus-induced murine encephalitis, Neurosci. Lett., 501, 163, 10.1016/j.neulet.2011.07.007 Rahimian, 2021, Microglia-derived galectin-3 in neuroinflammation; a bittersweet ligand?, Med. Res. Rev., 41, 2582, 10.1002/med.21784 Butovsky, 2018, Microglial signatures and their role in health and disease, Nat. Rev. Neurosci., 19, 622, 10.1038/s41583-018-0057-5 Holtman, 2015, Induction of a common microglia gene expression signature by aging and neurodegenerative conditions: a co-expression meta-analysis, Acta Neuropathol Commun, 3, 31, 10.1186/s40478-015-0203-5 Lerman, 2012, Deletion of galectin-3 exacerbates microglial activation and accelerates disease progression and demise in a SOD1(G93A) mouse model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Brain Behav, 2, 563, 10.1002/brb3.75 Jiang, 2009, Galectin-3 deficiency reduces the severity of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, J. Immunol., 182, 1167, 10.4049/jimmunol.182.2.1167 Rahimian, 2019, Delayed Galectin-3-mediated reprogramming of microglia after stroke is protective, Mol. Neurobiol., 56, 6371, 10.1007/s12035-019-1527-0 Lalancette-Hebert, 2007, Selective ablation of proliferating microglial cells exacerbates ischemic injury in the brain, J. Neurosci., 27, 2596, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5360-06.2007 O’Koren, 2019, Microglial function is distinct in different anatomical locations during retinal homeostasis and degeneration, Immunity, 50, 723, 10.1016/j.immuni.2019.02.007 Heng, 2019, Comprehensive analysis of a mouse model of spontaneous uveoretinitis using single-cell RNA sequencing, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 10.1073/pnas.1915571116 Mackinnon, 2012, Regulation of transforming growth factor-beta1-driven lung fibrosis by galectin-3, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 185, 537, 10.1164/rccm.201106-0965OC Hirani, 2021, Target inhibition of galectin-3 by inhaled TD139 in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, Eur Respir J, 57, 10.1183/13993003.02559-2020 Shochet, 2020, Galectin-3 levels are elevated following nintedanib treatment, Ther Adv Chronic Dis, 11, 10.1177/2040622320968412 Lee, 2021, Galectin-3 inhibitors suppress Anoikis resistance and invasive capacity in thyroid Cancer cells, Int. J. Endocrinol., 2021, 5583491, 10.1155/2021/5583491 Volarevic, 2012, Galectin-3 deficiency prevents concanavalin A-induced hepatitis in mice, Hepatology, 55, 1954, 10.1002/hep.25542 Tan, 2020, Small molecules targeting RORgammat inhibit autoimmune disease by suppressing Th17 cell differentiation, Cell Death Dis., 11, 697, 10.1038/s41419-020-02891-2 Huang, 2018, Aryl hydrocarbon receptor regulates apoptosis and inflammation in a murine model of experimental autoimmune uveitis, Front. Immunol., 9, 1713, 10.3389/fimmu.2018.01713 Su, 2001, Pertussis toxin inhibits induction of tissue-specific autoimmune disease by disrupting G protein-coupled signals, J. Immunol., 167, 250, 10.4049/jimmunol.167.1.250 Tian, 2011, AAV2-mediated subretinal gene transfer of hIFN-alpha attenuates experimental autoimmune uveoretinitis in mice, PLoS One, 6, 10.1371/journal.pone.0019542 Puigdellivol, 2020, Sialylation and Galectin-3 in microglia-mediated Neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration, Front. Cell. Neurosci., 14, 162, 10.3389/fncel.2020.00162 Hilliard, 2020, Involvement of NFkB and MAPK signaling pathways in the preventive effects of Ganoderma lucidum on the inflammation of BV-2 microglial cells induced by LPS, J. Neuroimmunol., 345, 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2020.577269 Ransohoff, 2016, A polarizing question: do M1 and M2 microglia exist?, Nat. Neurosci., 19, 987, 10.1038/nn.4338 Morganti, 2016, Call off the dog(ma): M1/M2 polarization is concurrent following traumatic brain injury, PLoS One, 11, 10.1371/journal.pone.0148001 Rahimian, 2021, The emerging tale of microglia in psychiatric disorders, Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 131, 1, 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.09.023 Kim, 2016, Brain trauma elicits non-canonical macrophage activation states, J. Neuroinflammation, 13, 117, 10.1186/s12974-016-0581-z Rahimian, 2020, Glucosamine-mediated immunomodulation after stroke is sexually dimorphic, Brain Behav Immun Health, 3 Abreu, 2017, Absence of galectin-3 promotes neuroprotection in retinal ganglion cells after optic nerve injury, Histol. Histopathol., 32, 253 Mendonca, 2018, Lack of Galectin-3 attenuates neuroinflammation and protects the retina and optic nerve of diabetic mice, Brain Res., 1700, 126, 10.1016/j.brainres.2018.07.018 Rahimian, 2019, Brain response to injuries: when microglia go sexist, Neuroscience, 405, 14, 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2018.02.048 St-Gelais, 2020, Efficient synthesis of a galectin inhibitor clinical candidate (TD139) using a Payne rearrangement/azidation reaction cascade, Org Biomol Chem, 18, 3903, 10.1039/D0OB00910E Garber, 2013, Galecto biotech, Nat. Biotechnol., 31, 481, 10.1038/nbt0613-481 Jeon, 2010, Galectin-3 exerts cytokine-like regulatory actions through the JAK-STAT pathway, J. Immunol., 185, 7037, 10.4049/jimmunol.1000154 Dagher, 1995, Identification of galectin-3 as a factor in pre-mRNA splicing, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 92, 1213, 10.1073/pnas.92.4.1213 Laing, 1988, Identification of carbohydrate binding protein 35 in heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein complex, Biochemistry, 27, 5329, 10.1021/bi00414a057 Ozden, 2011, Serum galectin-3 levels in patients with Behcet’s disease: association with disease activity over a long-term follow-up, J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol., 25, 1168, 10.1111/j.1468-3083.2010.03941.x Lee, 2007, Serum galectin-3 and galectin-3 binding protein levels in Behcet’s disease and their association with disease activity, Clin. Exp. Rheumatol., 25, S41