From relative risk to absolute fracture risk calculation: The FRAX algorithm

World Health Organization: Assessment of Fracture Risk and its Application to Screening for Postmenopausal Osteoporosis; Technical Report No. 843. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1994. World Health Organization: The World Health Report, 1997: Conquering Suffering, Enriching Humanity. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1997. Genant HK, Cooper C, Poor G, et al.: Interim report and recommendations of the World Health Organization Task-Force for Osteoporosis. Osteoporos Int 1999, 10:259–264. Kanis JA, McCloskey EV, Johansson H, et al.: A reference standard for the description of osteoporosis. Bone 2008, 42:467–475. Kanis JA, Johnell O, De Laet C, et al.: A meta-analysis of previous fracture and subsequent fracture risk. Bone 2004, 35:375–382. Kanis JA, Johansson H, Oden A, et al.: A family history of fracture and fracture risk: a meta-analysis. Bone 2004, 35:1029–1037. Feskanich D, Willett W, Colditz G: Walking and leisure-time activity and risk of hip fracture in postmenopausal women. JAMA 2002, 288:2300–2306. Kanis JA, Johnell O, Oden A, et al.: Smoking and fracture risk: a meta-analysis. Osteoporos Int 2005, 16:155–162. World Health Organization: WHO Scientific Group on the Assessment of Osteoporosis at the Primary Health Care Level, Summary Meeting Report, Brussels, Belgium, 5–7 May 2004. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2007. O’Neill TW, Felsenberg D, Varlow J, et al.: The prevalence of vertebral deformity in European men and women: the European Vertebral Osteoporosis Study. J Bone Miner Res 1996, 11:1010–1018. Jones G, Nguyen T, Sambrook PN, et al.: Symptomatic fracture incidence in elderly men and women: the Dubbo Osteoporosis Epidemiology Study (DOES). Osteoporos Int 1994, 4:277–282. Jackson SA, Tenenhouse A, Robertson L: Vertebral fracture definition from population-based data: preliminary results from the Canadian Multicenter Osteoporosis Study (CaMos). Osteoporos Int 2000, 11:680–687. Melton LJ 3rd: History of the Rochester Epidemiology Project. Mayo Clin Proc 1996, 71:266–274. Melton LJ 3rd: The prevalence of osteoporosis: gender and racial comparison. Calcif Tissue Int 2001, 69:179–181. McCloskey EV, Beneton M, Charlesworth D, et al.: Clodronate reduces the incidence of fractures in community-dwelling elderly women unselected for osteoporosis: results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled randomized study. J Bone Miner Res 2007, 22:135–141. Van der Klift M, De Laet CE, McCloskey EV, et al.: The incidence of vertebral fractures in men and women: the Rotterdam Study. J Bone Miner Res 2002, 17:1051–1056. van der Klift M, de Laet CE, McCloskey EV, et al.: Risk factors for incident vertebral fractures in men and women: the Rotterdam Study. J Bone Miner Res 2004, 19:1172–1180. Honkanen RJ, Honkanen K, Kroger H, et al.: Risk factors for perimenopausal distal forearm fracture. Osteoporos Int 2000, 11:265–270. Fujiwara S, Kasagi F, Yamada M, Kodama K: Risk factors for hip fracture in a Japanese cohort. J Bone Miner Res 1997, 12:998–1004. Albrand G, Munoz F, Sornay-Rendu E, et al.: Independent predictors of all osteoporosis-related fractures in healthy postmenopausal women: the OFELY study. Bone 2003, 32:78–85. Dargent-Molina P, Douchin MN, Cormier C, et al.: Use of clinical risk factors in elderly women with low bone mineral density to identify women at higher risk of hip fracture: The EPIDOS prospective study. Osteoporos Int 2002, 13:593–599. Svanborg A: Seventy-year-old people in Gothenburg a population study in an industrialized Swedish city. II. General presentation of social and medical conditions. Acta Med Scand Suppl 1977, 611:5–37. Kanis JA, Johansson H, Oden A, et al.: A meta-analysis of prior corticosteroid use and fracture risk. J Bone Miner Res 2004, 19:893–899. De Laet C, Oden A, Johansson H, et al.: The impact of the use of multiple risk indicators for fracture on case-finding strategies: a mathematical approach. Osteoporos Int 2005, 16:313–318. Kanis JA, Oden A, Johnell O, et al.: The use of clinical risk factors enhances the performance of BMD in the prediction of hip and osteoporotic fractures in men and women. Osteoporos Int 2007, 18:1033–1046. Looker AC, Wahner HW, Dunn WL, et al.: Updated data on proximal femur bone mineral levels of US adults. Osteoporos Int 1998, 8:468–489. Marshall D, Johnell O, Wedel H: Meta-analysis of how well measures of bone mineral density predict occurrence of osteoporotic fractures. BMJ 1996, 312:1254–1259. Schott AM, Cormier C, Hans D, et al.: How hip and whole-body bone mineral density predict hip fracture in elderly women: the EPIDOS Prospective Study. Osteoporos Int 1998, 8:247–254. Cummings SR, Nevitt MC, Browner WS, et al.: Risk factors for hip fracture in white women. Study of Osteoporotic Fractures Research Group. N Engl J Med 1995, 332:767–773. Sanders KM, Nicholson GC, Ugoni AM, et al.: Health burden of hip and other fractures in Australia beyond 2000. Projections based on the Geelong Osteoporosis Study. Med J Aust 1999, 170:467–470. Sanders KM, Pasco JA, Ugoni AM, et al.: The exclusion of high trauma fractures may underestimate the prevalence of bone fragility fractures in the community: the Geelong Osteoporosis Study. J Bone Miner Res 1998, 13:1337–1342. Gluer CC, Eastell R, Reid DM, et al.: Association of five quantitative ultrasound devices and bone densitometry with osteoporotic vertebral fractures in a population-based sample: the OPUS Study. J Bone Miner Res 2004, 19:782–793. Bagger YZ, Tanko LB, Alexandersen P, et al.: The long-term predictive value of bone mineral density measurements for fracture risk is independent of the site of measurement and the age at diagnosis: results from the Prospective Epidemiological Risk Factors study. Osteoporos Int 2006, 17:471–477. Porthouse J, Birks YF, Torgerson DJ, et al.: Risk factors for fracture in a UK population: a prospective cohort study. QJM 2004, 97:569–574. Walley T, Mantgani A: The UK General Practice Research Database. Lancet 1997, 350:1097–1099. Krieg MA, Cornuz J, Ruffieux C, et al.: Comparison of three bone ultrasounds for the discrimination of subjects with and without osteoporotic fractures among 7562 elderly women. J Bone Miner Res 2003, 18:1261–1266. Anderson GL, Manson J, Wallace R, et al.: Implementation of the Women’s Health Initiative study design. Ann Epidemiol 2003, 13:S5–S17. Yoshimura N, Takijiri T, Kinoshita H, et al.: Characteristics and course of bone mineral densities among fast bone losers in a rural Japanese community: the Miyama Study. Osteoporos Int 2004, 15:139–144. Dargent-Molina P, Favier F, Grandjean H, et al.: Fall-related factors and risk of hip fracture: the EPIDOS prospective study. Lancet 1996, 348:145–149. McGrother CW, Donaldson MM, Clayton D, et al.: Evaluation of a hip fracture risk score for assessing elderly women: the Melton Osteoporotic Fracture (MOF) study. Osteoporos Int 2002, 13:89–96. Black DM, Steinbuch M, Palermo L, et al.: An assessment tool for predicting fracture risk in postmenopausal women. Osteoporos Int 2001, 12:519–528. Kanis JA, Johnell O, De Laet C, et al.: International variations in hip fracture probabilities: implications for risk assessment. J Bone Miner Res 2002, 17:1237–1244. Kanis JA, on behalf of the WHO Scientific Group: Assessment of osteoporosis at the primary health-care level. Technical Report. 2008. Available at http://www.shef.ac.uk/FRAX/reference.htm. Accessed August 14, 2009. van Staa TP, Leufkens HG, Abenhaim L, et al.: Oral corticosteroids and fracture risk: relationship to daily and cumulative doses. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2000, 39:1383–1389. Kanis JA, Johansson H, Johnell O, et al.: Alcohol intake as a risk factor for fracture. Osteoporos Int 2005, 16:737–742. Delmas PD, Genant HK, Crans GG, et al.: Severity of prevalent vertebral fractures and the risk of subsequent vertebral and nonvertebral fractures: results from the MORE trial. Bone 2003, 33:522–532. Johnell O, Kanis JA, Oden A, et al.: Fracture risk following an osteoporotic fracture. Osteoporos Int 2004, 15:175–179. Kanis JA, Black D, Cooper C, et al.: A new approach to the development of assessment guidelines for osteoporosis. Osteoporos Int 2002, 13:527–536. Orstavik RE, Haugeberg G, Mowinckel P, et al.: Vertebral deformities in rheumatoid arthritis: a comparison with population-based controls. Arch Intern Med 2004, 164:420–425. Wainwright SA, Marshall LM, Ensrud KE, et al.: Hip fracture in women without osteoporosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005, 90:2787–2793. Roy DK, Pye SR, Lunt M, et al.: Falls explain between-center differences in the incidence of limb fracture across Europe. Bone 2002, 31:712–717. McClung MR, Geusens P, Miller PD, et al.: Effect of rise-dronate on the risk of hip fracture in elderly women. Hip Intervention Program Study Group. N Engl J Med 2001, 344:333–340. Kayan K, Johansson H, Oden A, et al.: Can fall risk be incorporated into fracture risk assessment algorithms: a pilot study of responsiveness to clodronate. Osteoporos Int 2009 (in press). Kanis JA, McCloskey EV, Johansson H, et al.: Case finding for the management of osteoporosis with FRAX—assessment and intervention thresholds for the UK. Osteoporos Int 2008, 19:1395–1408. Dawson-Hughes B, Tosteson AN, Melton LJ 3rd, et al.: Implications of absolute fracture risk assessment for osteoporosis practice guidelines in the USA. Osteoporos Int 2008, 19:449–458.