Fluid flowrates and compositions and water–rock interaction in the Hikurangi margin forearc, New Zealand

Abers, 2017, The cold and relatively dry nature of mantle forearcs in subduction zones, Nat. Geosci., 10, 10.1038/ngeo2922 Abrajano, 1988, Methane-hydrogen gas seeps: Zambales ophiolite, Philippines: deep or shallow origin?, Chem. Geol., 71, 211, 10.1016/0009-2541(88)90116-7 Allen, 2004, Serpentinization and heat generation: constraints from Lost City and Rainbow hydrothermal systems, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 68, 1347, 10.1016/j.gca.2003.09.003 Antriasian, 2019, Thermal regime of the Northern Hikurangi margin, New Zealand, Geophys. J. Int., 216, 1177 Arai, 2021, Characteristics of seismicity in the southern Okinawa Trough and their relation to back-arc rifting processes, Earth Planets Space, 73 Arnulf, 2022, Upper-plate controls on subduction zone geometry, hydration and earthquake behaviour, Nat. Geosci., 15, 143, 10.1038/s41561-021-00879-x Arnulf, 2021, Physical conditions and frictional properties in the source region of a slow-slip event, Nat. Geosci., 14, 334, 10.1038/s41561-021-00741-0 Audet, 2018, Fluid pressure and shear zone development over the locked to slow slip region in Cascadia, Sci. Adv., 4, eaar2982, 10.1126/sciadv.aar2982 Barker, 2009, Geometry of the Hikurangi subduction thrust and upper plate, North Island, New Zealand, Geochem. Geophys., 10 Barker, 2018, Geophysical constraints on the relationship between seamount subduction, slow slip, and tremor at the North Hikurangi subduction zone, New Zealand, Geophys. Res. Lett., 45, 12804, 10.1029/2018GL080259 Barnes, 1978, Present day serpentinization in New Caledonia, Oman and Yugoslavia, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 42, 144, 10.1016/0016-7037(78)90225-9 Barnes, J.D., 2019, The role of the upper plate in controlling fluid-mobile element (Cl, Li, B. cycling through subduction zones: Hikurangi forearc, New Zealand, Geosphere, 15, 642, 10.1130/GES02057.1 Barnes, 1997, Rates and mechanics of rapid frontal accretion along very obliquely convergent southern Hikurangi margin, New Zealand, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 24931, 10.1029/97JB01384 Barnes, 2018, The role of protothrusts in frontal accretion and accommodation of plate convergence, Hikurangi subduction margin, New Zealand, Geosphere, 14, 440, 10.1130/GES01552.1 Barnes, 2010, Tectonic and geological framework for gas hydrates and cold seeps on the Hikurangi subduction margin, New Zealand, Mar. Geol., 272, 26, 10.1016/j.margeo.2009.03.012 Barnes, P.M., 2019, Site U1520 Barnes, 2020, Slow slip source characterized by lithological and geometric heterogeneity, Sci. Adv., 6, 10.1126/sciadv.aay3314 Bartlow, 2014, Time-dependent modelling of slow slip events and associated seismicity and tremor at the Hikurangi subduction zone, New Zealand, J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth, 119, 734, 10.1002/2013JB010609 Bassett, 2022, Crustal structure of the Hikurangi margin from SHIRE seismic data and the relationship between forearc structure and shallow megathrust slip behavior, Geophys. Res. Lett. Lett., 49 Beanland, 1998, The kinematics of active deformation in the North Island, New Zealand, determined from geological strain rates, N. Z. J. Geol. Geophys., 41, 311, 10.1080/00288306.1998.9514813 Begg, 2000 Bell, 2010, Seismic reflection character of the Hikurangi subduction interface, New Zealand, in the region of repeated Gisborne slow slip events, Geophys. J. Int., 180, 34, 10.1111/j.1365-246X.2009.04401.x Bell, 2014, Hikurangi margin tsunami earthquake generated by slow seismic rupture over a subducted seamount, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 397, 1, 10.1016/j.epsl.2014.04.005 Bethke, 2015 Boschetti, 2013, Boron, lithium and methane isotope composition of hyperalkaline waters (Northern Apennines, Italy): terrestrial serpentinization or mixing with brine?, J. Appl. Geochem., 32, 17, 10.1016/j.apgeochem.2012.08.018 Bowen, 1979 Brown Associates, 1998 Brown Associates, 1999 Burdige, 2013, Using ammonium pore water profiles to assess stoichiometry of deep remineralization processes in methanogenic continental margin sediments, Geochem. Geophys., 14, 1626, 10.1002/ggge.20117 Cai, 2018, Water input into the Mariana subduction zone estimated from ocean-bottom seismic data, Nature, 563, 389, 10.1038/s41586-018-0655-4 Campbell, 2008, Hydrocarbon seep-carbonates of a Miocene forearc (East Coast Basin) North Island, New Zealand, J. Sediment. Geol., 204, 83, 10.1016/j.sedgeo.2008.01.002 Chesley, 2021, Fluid-rich subducting topography generates anomalous forearc porosity, Nature, 595, 255, 10.1038/s41586-021-03619-8 Clayton, 1991, Carbon isotope fractionation during natural gas generation from kerogen, Mar. Pet. Geol., 8, 232, 10.1016/0264-8172(91)90010-X Collot, 2001, The giant Ruatoria debris avalanche on the northern Hikurangi margin, New Zealand: result of oblique seamount subduction, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 19271, 10.1029/2001JB900004 Craig, 1976, Primordial neon, helium, and hydrogen in oceanic basalts, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 31, 369, 10.1016/0012-821X(76)90118-7 Crutchley, 2019, How tectonic folding influences gas hydrate formation: New Zealand’s Hikurangi subduction margin, Geology, 47, 39, 10.1130/G45151.1 Cullen, 2015, Tracing chlorine sources of thermal and mineral springs along and across the Cascade Range using halogen concentrations and chlorine isotope compositions., Earth Planet Sci. Lett., 426, 225, 10.1016/j.epsl.2015.06.052 Davy, 1994, Gravity and magnetic modelling of the Hikurangi Plateau, Mar. Geol., 118, 139, 10.1016/0025-3227(94)90117-1 Davy, 2008, Hikurangi Plateau: Crustal structure, rifted formation, and Gondwana subduction history, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 9, Q07004, 10.1029/2007GC001855 de Caen, 1970, Register of oil and gas manifestations Hawkes Bay East Coast North Island, NZ. Unpublished Petroleum Report 379 Delahaye, 2009, Microseismicity but no tremor accompanying slow slip in the Hikurangi subduction zone, New Zealand, EPSL, 277, 21, 10.1016/j.epsl.2008.09.038 Deschamps, 2013, Geochemistry of subduction zone serpentinites: a review, Lithos, 178, 96, 10.1016/j.lithos.2013.05.019 Ding, 2015, Thermal sulfate reduction by ammonium ion (NH4+): implications for inorganic origin of H2S and N2 in sedimentary basins, Carbonates Evaporites, 30, 273, 10.1007/s13146-014-0208-3 Eberhart-Phillips, 2015, 3–D imaging of the northern Hikurangi subduction zone, New Zealand: variations in subducted sediment, slab fluids and slow slip, Geophys. J. Int., 201, 838, 10.1093/gji/ggv057 Eberhart-Phillips, 2012, Imaging the Hikurangi Plate interface region, with improved local-earthquake tomography, Geophys. J. Int., 190, 1221, 10.1111/j.1365-246X.2012.05553.x Eberhart-Phillips, 2017, Deciphering the 3–D distribution of fluid along the shallow Hikurangi subduction zone using P- and S-wave attenuation, Geophys. J. Int., 211, 1032, 10.1093/gji/ggx348 Ellis, 2015, Fluid budgets along the northern Hikurangi subduction margin, New Zealand: the effect of a subducting seamount on fluid pressure, Geophys. J. Int., 202, 277, 10.1093/gji/ggv127 Ellis, 1964, Natural hydrothermal systems and experimental hot water/rock interactions (Part I), Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 28, 1323, 10.1016/0016-7037(64)90132-2 Ellis, 1967, Natural hydrothermal systems and experimental hot water/rock interactions (Part II), Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 31, 519, 10.1016/0016-7037(67)90032-4 Engle, 2016, Geochemistry of formation waters from the Wolfcamp and “Cline” shales: insights into brine origin, reservoir connectivity, and fluid flow in the Permian Basin, USA, Chem. Geol., 425, 76, 10.1016/j.chemgeo.2016.01.025 Epstein, 2021, Cycling of CO2 and N2 along the Hikurangi subduction margin, New Zealand: an integrated geological, theoretical, and isotopic approach, Geochem. Geophys., 22 Etiope, 2013, Low temperature production and exhalation of methane from serpentinized rocks on Earth: a potential analog for methane production on Mars, Icarus, 224, 276, 10.1016/j.icarus.2012.05.009 Etiope, 2013, Methane flux and origin in the Othrys ophiolite hyperalkaline springs, Greece, Chem. Geol., 347, 161, 10.1016/j.chemgeo.2013.04.003 Etiope, 2019, Gridded maps of geological methane emissions and their isotopic signature, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 11, 1, 10.5194/essd-11-1-2019 Evans, 2013, Serpentinite: what, why, where?, Elements, 9, 99, 10.2113/gselements.9.2.99 Fagereng, 2009, On factors controlling the depth of interseismic coupling on the Hikurangi subduction interface, New Zealand, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 278, 120, 10.1016/j.epsl.2008.11.033 Fagereng, 2018, Fluid-related deformation processes at the up– and downdip limits of the subduction thrust seismogenic zone: what do the rocks tell us?, 187 Fehn, 2003, Origin of iodine and 129I in volcanic and geothermal fluids from the North Island of New Zealand: implications for subduction zone processes, 10, 159 Field, 1997 Fournier, 1982, An equation correlating the solubility of quartz in water from 25o to 900°C at pressures up to 10,000 bars, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 46, 1969, 10.1016/0016-7037(82)90135-1 Francis, 1993, Report on the geology of the Mahia area, northern Hawkes Bay, adjacent to offshore PPL38321. Unpublished Petroleum Report 1928 Francis, D.A., 1994. Reservoir formations in western and northern Hawkes Bay, East Coast basin, New Zealand, PPP 38324, PPL38316. Unpublished Petroleum Report 2160. Ministry of Economic Development, Wellington, New Zealand, 93p. https://data.nzpam.govt.nz/GOLD/system/mainframe.asp. Francis, 1995, Oil and gas seeps of northern and central East Coast Basin, Petrol. Explor. New Zealand News, 44, 21 Francis, 1998, The real oil and a bit of gas on the East Coast reservoirs, 173 Francis, D.A., 1998b. Gas chromatograph and isotope analyses of gas seeps, PEPs 38330, 38328, 38332 and former 38312, East Coast Basin. Unpublished Petroleum Report 3111. Ministry of Economic Development, Wellington, New Zealand, 10p. https://data.nzpam.govt.nz/GOLD/system/mainframe.asp. Francis, D.A., 1998c. A study of Mid-Miocene reservoir sandstones near Arataha Dome, Tolaga Bay, PEP 38330, East Coast Basin. Unpublished Petroleum Report 3352. Ministry of Economic Development, Wellington, New Zealand, 24p. https://data.nzpam.govt.nz/GOLD/system/mainframe.asp. Francis, 2001, Source and reservoir sequences in the Waipatiki-Towai Rd area (PEP 38332) reservoir near Ngahape Rd (PEP 38328) Southern Hawkes Bay, East Coast Basin, NZ. Unpublished Petroleum Report 3110 Francis, D.A., 2010a. Geology of the Pouawa Structure, PEP 50940, Gisborne. Unpublished Petroleum Report 4133. Ministry of Economic Development, Wellington, New Zealand, 33p. https://data.nzpam.govt.nz/GOLD/system/mainframe.asp. Francis, D.A., 2010b. Geology of the Tangamatai Structure, PEP 50940, Gisborne. Unpublished Petroleum Report 4134. Ministry of Economic Development, Wellington, New Zealand, 26p. https://data.nzpam.govt.nz/GOLD/system/mainframe.asp. Francis, 1990, The outcrop geology in the vicinity of the Te Hoe structure, northern Hawkes Bay, PPL38316. Unpublished Petroleum Report 1673 Francis, 1997, Oil and gas generation in the East Coast Basin: an update, Petrol. Explor. New Zealand News, 51, 8 Fripiat, 1974, Clays as catalysts for natural processes, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 2, 239, 10.1146/annurev.ea.02.050174.001323 Frost, 2007, On silica activity and serpentinization, J. Petrol., 48, 1351, 10.1093/petrology/egm021 Gao, 2014, Strength of stick-slip and creeping subduction megathrusts from heat flow observations, Science, 345, 1038, 10.1126/science.1255487 Ghisetti, 2016, The last 2 Myr of accretionary wedge construction in the central Hikurangi margin (North Island, New Zealand): Insights from structural modeling, Geochem. Geophys., 17, 2661, 10.1002/2016GC006341 Giggenbach, 1988, Geothermal solute equilibria. Derivation of Na–K–Mg–Ca geoindicators, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 52, 2749, 10.1016/0016-7037(88)90143-3 Giggenbach, 1991, Chemical techniques in geothermal exploration, 119 Giggenbach, 1995, Variations in the chemical and isotopic composition of fluids discharged over the Taupo Volcanic Zone, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 68, 89, 10.1016/0377-0273(95)00009-J Giggenbach, 1997, Relative importance of thermodynamic and kinetic processes in governing the chemical and isotopic composition of carbon gases in high-heatflow sedimentary basins, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 61, 3761, 10.1016/S0016-7037(97)00171-3 Giggenbach, 1993, Isotopic composition of helium, and CO2 and CH4 contents in gases produced along the New Zealand part of a convergent plate boundary, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 57, 3427, 10.1016/0016-7037(93)90549-C Giggenbach, 1995, Isotopic and chemical composition of solutions and gases from the East Coast accretionary prism, New Zealand, 209 Glover, 1968 Goguel, 1983, The rare alkalies in hydrothermal alteration at Wairakei and Broadlands, geothermal fields, N.Z, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 47, 429, 10.1016/0016-7037(83)90265-X Goldberg, 2010, Bromide adsorption by reference minerals and soils, Vadose Zone J., 9, 780, 10.2136/vzj2010.0028 Halldorsson, 2014, A common mantle plume source beneath the entire East African Rift System revealed by coupled helium-neon systematics, Geophys. Res. Lett., 41, 2304, 10.1002/2014GL059424 Hatakeyama, 2017, Mantle hydration along outer-rise faults inferred from serpentinite permeability, Nat. Sci. Rep., 7, 13870 Haw, 1958, Compilation report on the Kauhauroa Structure. Unpublished Petroleum Report 309 Haw, D., 1959a. Geological compilation report on the Mangaone – Waingake uplift. Unpublished Petroleum Report 315. Ministry of Economic Development, Wellington, New Zealand, 105p. https://data.nzpam.govt.nz/GOLD/system/mainframe.asp. Haw, D., 1959b. The geology of the Morere – Kopuawhara Uplift. Unpublished Petroleum Report 312. Ministry of Economic Development, Wellington, New Zealand, 71p. https://data.nzpam.govt.nz/GOLD/system/mainframe.asp. Haw, D., 1959c. Makareao anticline, geological compilation report on the Makareao structure. Unpublished Petroleum Report 310. Ministry of Economic Development, Wellington, New Zealand, 79p. https://data.nzpam.govt.nz/GOLD/system/mainframe.asp. Heise, 2013, Changes in electrical resistivity track changes in tectonic plate coupling, Geophys. Res. Lett., 40, 5029, 10.1002/grl.50959 Heise, 2017, Mapping subduction interface coupling using magnetotellurics: Hikurangi margin, New Zealand, Geophys. Res. Lett., 44, 9261, 10.1002/2017GL074641 Henderson, 1937 Henderson, 1920 Henley, 1983, Geothermal systems ancient and modern: a geochemical review, Earth Sci. Rev., 19, 1, 10.1016/0012-8252(83)90075-2 Henrys, 2020, Upper-plate heterogeneity along the southern Hikurangi margin, New Zealand, Geophys. Res. Lett., 47, 10.1029/2019GL085511 Herbert, 1921 Hoernle, 2010, Age and geochemistry of volcanic rocks from the Hikurangi and Manihiki oceanic plateaus, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 74, 7196, 10.1016/j.gca.2010.09.030 Holloway, 2002, Nitrogen in rock: occurrences and biogeochemical implications, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 16, 1118, 10.1029/2002GB001862 Houston, 2011, The relative importance of buffering and brine inputs in controlling the abundance of Na and Ca in sedimentary formation waters, Mar. Pet. Geol., 1242–1251 Hulme, 2010, Pore water chemistry of the Mariana serpentinite mud volcanoes: a window to the seismogenic zone, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 11, Q01X09, 10.1029/2009GC002674 Hunt, 1995, Origin of mineral springs on the East Coast, North Island, NZ, 71 Hupers, 2012, Effect of smectite dehydration on pore water geochemistry in the shallow subduction zone: an experimental approach, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 13, 10.1029/2012GC004212 Hyndman, 1976, The physical properties of oceanic basement rocks from deep drilling on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, J. Geophys. Res., 81, 4042, 10.1029/JB081i023p04042 Hyndman, 2003, Serpentinization of the forearc mantle, EPSL, 212, 417, 10.1016/S0012-821X(03)00263-2 Ikari, 2020, The rough ride of subducting fault surfaces, Nat. Geosci., 13, 328, 10.1038/s41561-020-0574-5 Jacobs, 2016, Quantifying seismicity associated with slow slip events in the Hikurangi margin, New Zealand, NZ J. Geol. Geophys., 59, 58, 10.1080/00288306.2015.1127827 Jarrard, 2003, Subduction fluxes of water, carbon dioxide, chlorine, and potassium, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 4, 8905, 10.1029/2002GC000392 Jenkins, 1962, Dannevirke survey revision reports. Unpublished Petroleum Report 347 Johnston, M.R., 1980. Geology of the Tinui-Awatoitoi district. New Zealand Geological Survey Bulletin 94. Wellington, New Zealand, 62 p. Johnston, 1980, Geology of the Tinui-Awatoitoi district, New Zealand Geological Survey Bulletin 94, Wellington, New Zealand, Kaplan, 2000, Iodide sorption to subsurface sediments and illitic minerals, Environ. Sci. Technol., 34, 399, 10.1021/es990220g Kastner, 2014, Fluid origins, thermal regimes, and fluid and solute fluxes in the forearc of subduction zones, Dev. Marine Geol., 7, 671 Kharaka, 1989, Chemical geothermometers and their application to formation waters in sedimentary basins, 99 Konn, 2015, The production of methane, hydrogen, and organic compounds in ultramafic-hosted hydrothermal vents of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Astrobiology, 15, 381, 10.1089/ast.2014.1198 Kristmannsdottir, 1979, Alteration of basaltic rocks by hydrothermal activity at 100–300oC, 359 Laing, 1962 Land, 1992, Geothermometry from brine analyses: lessons from the Gulf Coast, U.S.A, J. Appl. Geochem., 7, 333, 10.1016/0883-2927(92)90023-V Lee, 2002 Lee, 2011 Leeman, 2016, Laboratory observations of slow earthquakes and the spectrum of tectonic fault slip modes, Nat. Commun., 7, 11104, 10.1038/ncomms11104 Lewis, 1993, The emerging, imbricate frontal wedge of the Hikurangi margin., 225 Lewis, 1998, The dammed Hikurangi Trough: a channel-fed trench blocked by subducting seamounts and their wake avalanches (New Zealand-France GeodyNZ Project), Basin Res., 10, 441, 10.1046/j.1365-2117.1998.00080.x Lillie, A.R., 1953. The geology of the Dannevirke Subdivision. New Zealand Geological Survey Bulletin 46, Wellington, New Zealand, 156 p. Liu, 2005, Aseismic slip transients emerge spontaneously in three-dimensional rate and state modeling of subduction earthquake sequences, J. Geophys. Res., 110, B08307, 10.1029/2004JB003424 Longstaffe, 1987, Oxygen-isotope studies of clastic diagenesis in the Lower Cretaceous Viking Formation, Alberta: implications for the role of meteoric water, 277 Lyon, G.L., Giggenbach, W.F., 1990. Composition and origin of the hydrogen-rich gas seep, Poison Bay, and of two other natural gases from Fiordland, New Zealand. DSIR Physical Sciences Report 1, New Zealand. Lyon, 1993, The stable isotope composition of some East Coast gases, 310 MacLaurin, 1911 MacLaurin, 1918 Manning, 2004, Distribution and mineralogical controls on ammonium in deep groundwaters, J. Appl. Geochem., 19, 1495, 10.1016/j.apgeochem.2004.01.019 Marques, 2008, Origins of high pH mineral waters from ultramafic rocks, Central Portugal, J. Appl. Geochem., 23, 3278, 10.1016/j.apgeochem.2008.06.029 Martin, 1999, Nonconservative behavior of Br–/Cl– ratios during alteration of volcaniclastic sediments, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 63, 383, 10.1016/S0016-7037(99)00036-8 Martin, 2020, Deep mantle serpentinization in subduction zones: Insight from in situ B isotopes in slab and mantle wedge serpentinites, Chem. Geol., 545, 10.1016/j.chemgeo.2020.119637 Martin, 1993, Bromine and iodine in Peru margin sediments and pore fluids: implications for fluid origins, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 57, 4377, 10.1016/0016-7037(93)90489-J Martin, 1996, Chemical and isotopic evidence for sources of fluids in a mud volcano field seaward of the Barbados accretionary wedge, J. Geophys. Res., 109, 20,325, 10.1029/96JB00140 Matsumoto, 2003, 3He/4He ratios in well gases in the Kinki district, SW Japan: surface appearance of slab-derived flids in a non-volcanic area in Kii Peninsula, EPSL, 216, 221, 10.1016/S0012-821X(03)00479-5 Mazengarb, 2000 Mazzini, 2017, Mud volcanism: an updated review, Earth-Sci. Rev., 168, 81, 10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.03.001 McCaffrey, 2008, Slow slip and frictional transition at low temperature at the Hikurangi subduction zone, Nat. Geosci., 1, 316, 10.1038/ngeo178 McLernon, 1978 Menant, 2019, Stress-driven fluid flow controls long-term megathrust strength and deep accretionary dynamics, Nat. Sci. Rep., 9, 9714 Milkov, 2018, Revised genetic diagram for natural gases based on a global dataset of >20,000 samples, Org. Geochem., 125, 109, 10.1016/j.orggeochem.2018.09.002 Momose, 2021, Combined tracers in hot spring waters across the Kii Peninsula, Japan: implications for the origins of metamorphic fluids of the SW Japan forearc, Geochem. J., 55, 289, 10.2343/geochemj.2.0637 Mortimer, 1994, Origin of the Torlesse Terrane and coeval rocks, North Island, New Zealand, Int. Geol. Rev., 36, 891, 10.1080/00206819409465494 Mortimer, 1996, Hikurangi Plateau: a Cretaceous large igneous province in the southwest Pacific Ocean, J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth, 101, 687, 10.1029/95JB03037 Mottl, 2003, Deep-slab fluids fuel extremophilic Archaea on a Mariana forearc serpentinite mud volcano: Ocean Drilling Program Leg 195, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 4, 9009, 10.1029/2003GC000588 Muehlenbachs, 1976, Oxygen isotope composition of the oceanic crust and its bearing on seawater, J. Geophys. Res., 81, 4365, 10.1029/JB081i023p04365 Muramatsu, 2001, Recycling of iodine in fore-arc areas: evidence from the iodine brines in Chiba, Japan, EPSL, 192, 583, 10.1016/S0012-821X(01)00483-6 Murray, 1994, Geochemistry of oils and source rocks of the East Coast Basin and implications for the Taranaki Basin, New Zealand, 338 Neal, 2002, Spring and surface water quality of the Cyprus ophiolites, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 6, 797, 10.5194/hess-6-797-2002 New Zealand Energy Corporation, 2011 Ongley, M., Macpherson, E.O., 1928. The geology of the Waiapu Subdivision, Raukumara Division. New Zealand Geological Survey Bulletin 30. Wellington, New Zealand, 79 p. Ozima, 2002 Pashin, 2014, Relationships between water and gas chemistry in mature coalbed methane reservoirs of the Black Warrior Basin, Int. J. Coal Geol., 126, 92, 10.1016/j.coal.2013.10.002 Pecher, 2010, Focussed fluid flow on the Hikurangi Margin, New Zealand-evidence from possible local upwarping of the base of gas hydrate stability, Mar. Geol., 272, 99, 10.1016/j.margeo.2009.10.006 Phan, 2016, Factors controlling Li concentration and isotopic composition in formation waters and host rocks of Marcellus Shale, Appalachian Basin, Chem. Geol., 420, 162, 10.1016/j.chemgeo.2015.11.003 Plaza-Faverola, 2012, Evolution of fluid expulsion and concentrated hydrate zones across the southern Hikurangi subduction margin, New Zealand: An analysis from depth migrated seismic data, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 13, 10.1029/2012GC004228 Plaza-Faverola, 2014, Submarine gas seepage in a mixed contractional and shear deformation regime: cases from the Hikurangi oblique-subduction margin, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 15, 416, 10.1002/2013GC005082 Reeburgh, 2007, Oceanic methane biochemistry, Chem. Rev., 107, 486, 10.1021/cr050362v Reyes, 2015, Low-temperature geothermal reserves in New Zealand, Geothermics, 56, 138, 10.1016/j.geothermics.2015.04.004 Reyes, 2012, Hydrothermal water-rock interaction and redistribution of Li, B, and Cl in the Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand, Chem. Geol., 314–317, 96, 10.1016/j.chemgeo.2012.05.002 Reyes, 2020, Possible mineral-water interactions delimiting Li–geothermometry in geothermal systems Reyes, 2010, Sources of solutes and heat in low-enthalpy mineral waters and their relation to tectonic setting, New Zealand, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 192, 117, 10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2010.02.015 Reynard, 2016, Mantle hydration and Cl–rich fluids in the subduction forearc, Prog. Earth Planet. Sci., 3 Reyners, 2007, Earthquakes triggered by slow slip at the plate interface in the Hikurangi subduction zone, New Zealand, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, 10.1029/2007GL030511 Reyners, 2009, Small earthquakes provide insight into plate coupling and fluid distribution in the Hikurangi subduction zone, New Zealand, EPSL, 282, 299, 10.1016/j.epsl.2009.03.034 Reyners, 2017, Subducting an old subduction zone sideways provides insights into what controls plate coupling, EPSL, 466, 53, 10.1016/j.epsl.2017.03.004 Riefstahl, 2020, Extent and cessation of the mid-Cretaceous Hikurangi Plateau underthrusting: impact on global plate tectonics and the submarine Chatham Rise, J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth, 125, 10.1029/2020JB019681 Romer, 2012, Geological control and magnitude of methane ebullition from a high-flux seep area in the Black Sea—the Kerch seep area, Mar. Geol., 319–322, 57, 10.1016/j.margeo.2012.07.005 Ross, 1967 Rupke, 2004, Serpentine and the subduction zone water cycle, EPSL, 223, 17, 10.1016/j.epsl.2004.04.018 Rysgaard, 1999, Effects of salinity on NH4+ adsorption capacity, nitrification, and denitrification in Danish estuarine sediments, Estuaries, 22, 21, 10.2307/1352923 Saffer, 2011, Hydrology and mechanics of subduction zone forearcs: fluid flow and pore pressure, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 39, 157, 10.1146/annurev-earth-040610-133408 Saffer, 2015, The frictional, hydrologic, metamorphic and thermal habitat of shallow slow earthquakes, Nat. Geosci., 8, 594, 10.1038/ngeo2490 Saffer, 2019, Hikurangi subduction margin coring, logging and observatories Sano, 2016, Groundwater helium anomaly reflects strain change during the 2016 Kumamoto earthquake in Southwest Japan, Sci. Rep., 6, 37939, 10.1038/srep37939 Schellart, 2009, Plate reconstruction and tomography reveal a fossil lower mantle slab below the Tasman Sea, EPSL, 278, 143, 10.1016/j.epsl.2008.11.004 Seno, 2001, Dehydration of serpentinized slab mantle: seismic evidence from southwest Japan, Earth Planets Space, 53, 861, 10.1186/BF03351683 Seyfried, 2015, The Lost City hydrothermal system: constraints imposed by vent fluid chemistry and reaction path models on subseafloor heat and mass transfer processes, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 163, 59, 10.1016/j.gca.2015.04.040 Shaddox, 2019, Subducted seamount diverts shallow slow slip to the forearc of the northern Hikurangi subduction zone, New Zealand, Geology, 47, 415, 10.1130/G45810.1 Shelly, 2006, Low-frequency earthquakes in Shikoku, Japan, and their relationship to episodic tremor and slip, Nature, 442, 188, 10.1038/nature04931 Sheppard, 1996, Stable isotope geochemistry of clay minerals: “The story of sloppy, sticky, lumpy and tough” Cairns-Smith (1971)., Clay Miner., 31, 1, 10.1180/claymin.1996.031.1.01 Shreedharan, 2022, Frictional and lithological controls on shallow slow slip at the northern Hikurangi margin, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 23, 10.1029/2021GC010107 Skarbek, 2012, Geologic heterogeneity can produce aseismic slip transients, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L21306, 10.1029/2012GL053762 Skey, 1877, On certain of the mineral waters of New Zealand, Trans. Proc. R. Soc. NZ, 10, 423 Smith, 1989, Correlation of carbon dioxide abundance with temperature in clastic hydrocarbon reservoirs: relationship to inorganic chemical equilibrium, Mar. Pet. Geol., 6, 129, 10.1016/0264-8172(89)90016-0 Stewart, 1981, Environmental isotopes in New Zealand hydrology 1 Introduction: the role of oxygen–18, deuterium and tritium in hydrology, NZ J. Sci., 34, 295 Stolper, 2015, Distinguishing and understanding thermogenic and biogenic sources of methane using multiply substituted isotopologues, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 161, 219, 10.1016/j.gca.2015.04.015 Sun, 2020, Mechanical and hydrological effects of seamount subduction on megathrust stress and slip, Nat. Geosci., 13, 249, 10.1038/s41561-020-0542-0 Taran, 2003, Geochemistry of light hydrocarbons in subduction-related volcanic and hydrothermal fluids, 10, 61 Taran, 1989, Isotopic composition and origin of water from andesitic magmas, Dokl. Akad. SSSR, 304, 440 Taylor, 1997, Oxygen and hydrogen isotope relationships in hydrothermal mineral deposits, 229 Todd, 2018, Earthquakes and tremor linked to seamount subduction during shallow slow slip at the Hikurangi Margin, New Zealand, J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth, 123, 6769, 10.1029/2018JB016136 Townend, 1997, Subducting a sponge: minimum estimates of the fluid budget of the Hikurangi Margin accretionary prism, Geol. Soc. NZ Newslett., 112, 14 Umeda, 2007, Relationship between helium isotopes and heat flux from hot springs in a non-volcanic region, Kii Peninsula, southwest Japan, GRL, 34, L05310, 10.1029/2006GL028975 Vӧlker, 2015, Water input and water release from the subducting Nazca Plate along southern Central Chile (33oS–46oS), Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 16, 1825, 10.1002/2015GC005766 Wallace, 2020, Slow slip events in New Zealand, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 48, 10.1146/annurev-earth-071719-055104 Wallace, 2006, A large slow slip event on the central Hikurangi subduction interface beneath the Manawatu region, North Island, New Zealand, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, 10.1029/2006GL026009 Wallace, 2004, Subduction zone coupling and tectonic block rotations in the North Island, New Zealand, J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth, 109, B12406, 10.1029/2004JB003241 Wallace, 2009, Characterizing the seismogenic zone of a major plate boundary subduction thrust: Hikurangi Margin, New Zealand, Geochem. Geophys., 10 Wallace, 2012, Simultaneous long-term and short-term slow slip events at the Hikurangi subduction margin, New Zealand: implications for processes that control slow slip event occurrence, duration, and migration, J. Geophys. Res., 117, 10.1029/2012JB009489 Wallace, 2014, Quake clamps down on slow slip, Geophys. Res. Lett., 41, 8840, 10.1002/2014GL062367 Wallace, 2016, Slow slip near the trench at the Hikurangi subduction zone, New Zealand, Science, 352, 701, 10.1126/science.aaf2349 Wanner, 1911, Report on the occurrence of oil and gas in the districts of Masterton, Akitio and Weber. Unpublished Petroleum Report 187 Watson, 2020, Focused fluid seepage related to variations in accretionary wedge structure, Hikurangi margin, New Zealand, Geology, 48, 56, 10.1130/G46666.1 Westech Energy, 1999 Westech Energy, 2001 Wheat, 2020, Fluid transport and reaction processes within a serpentinite mud volcano: South Chamorro Seamount, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 269, 413, 10.1016/j.gca.2019.10.037 White, 2013 Williams, 2013, Revised interface geometry for the Hikurangi subduction zone, New Zealand, Seismol. Res. Lett., 84, 10.1785/0220130035 Williams, 1989, Fixed ammonium in clays associated with crude oils, J. Appl. Geochem., 4, 605, 10.1016/0883-2927(89)90070-X Williams, 2005, Lithium and boron isotopes in illite-smectite: the importance of crystal size, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 69, 5705, 10.1016/j.gca.2005.08.005 Williams, 2015, Effects of material property variations on slip estimates for subduction interface slow-slip events, Geophys. Res. Lett., 42, 1113, 10.1002/2014GL062505 Wilson, 1995, Volcanic and structural evolution of Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand: a review., JVGR, 68, 1 Yabe, 2014, Along-strike variations in temperature and tectonic tremor activity along the Hikurangi subduction zone, New Zealand, Earth Planets Space, 66, 142, 10.1186/s40623-014-0142-6 Yardley, 2014, Section 4. Geological settings of crustal fluids., Geochemical Perspectives, 3, 73 Yardley, 2002, The origins of salinity in metamorphic fluids, Geofluids, 2, 249, 10.1046/j.1468-8123.2002.00042.x Yardley, 2000, The chemistry of crustal fluids: tracking their origins, 61 Yeh, 1980, D/H ratios and late-stage dehydration of shales during burial, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 44, 341, 10.1016/0016-7037(80)90142-8 Yeh, 1976, The extent of oxygen isotope exchange between clay minerals and sea water, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 40, 743, 10.1016/0016-7037(76)90027-2 Zheng, 1993, Calculation of oxygen isotope fractionation in hydroxyl-bearing silicates, EPSL, 120, 247, 10.1016/0012-821X(93)90243-3