Các ràng buộc từ góc nhìn cá nhân đối với các giải thích cơ động-cơ học trong khoa học thần kinh: Trường hợp các mô hình đau nửa đầu và động kinh

Synthese - Tập 202 - Trang 1-20 - 2023
Marek Pokropski1, Piotr Suffczynski2
1Faculty of Philosophy, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
2Faculty of Physics, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland

Tóm tắt

Theo các cuộc thảo luận gần đây, việc tích hợp giải thích chéo trong khoa học nhận thức có thể tiến triển nhờ vào các ràng buộc từ các mô hình cơ học và cơ động-cơ học do các lĩnh vực nghiên cứu khác nhau cung cấp. Tuy nhiên, chưa có nhiều sự chú ý dành cho các ràng buộc có thể được đưa ra từ việc nghiên cứu trải nghiệm từ góc nhìn cá nhân, điều này rất quan trọng trong trường hợp của các hiện tượng tâm lý đa dạng. Trong bài viết này, chúng tôi lấp đầy khoảng trống đó và xem xét câu hỏi liệu thông tin về trải nghiệm từ góc nhìn cá nhân có thể ràng buộc các mô hình cơ động-cơ học hay không và bản chất của mối quan hệ này là gì. Chúng tôi thảo luận về hai ví dụ của các mô hình giải thích như vậy trong khoa học thần kinh, đó là trường hợp của bệnh đau nửa đầu và động kinh. Chúng tôi lập luận rằng, trong những trường hợp này, những hiểu biết từ góc nhìn cá nhân về các hiện tượng mục tiêu đã đóng góp đáng kể vào các mô hình giải thích bằng cách hình thành các giả thuyết giải thích và chỉ ra các thuộc tính động mà các mô hình giải thích cho những hiện tượng này cần phải tính đến, và do đó trực tiếp ràng buộc không gian của các giải thích có khả năng.

Từ khóa

#các mô hình đau nửa đầu #động kinh #trải nghiệm từ góc nhìn cá nhân #khoa học thần kinh #giải thích cơ động-cơ học

Tài liệu tham khảo

Andreasen, N. (1999). A unitary model of schizophrenia: Bleuler’s fragmented phrene as schizencephaly. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56(9), 781–787. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.56.9.781 Alexandrova, A. (2017). A philosophy for the science of well-being. Oxford University Press. Bauer, P. R., Thijs, R. D., Lamberts, R. J., Velis, D. N., Visser, G. H., Tolner, E. A., Sander, J. W., da Lopes, F. H., & Kalitzin, S. N. (2017). Dynamics of convulsive seizure termination and postictal generalized EEG suppression. Brain, 140(3), 655–668. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/aww322 Beer, R. D. (2003). The dynamics of active categorical perception in an evolved model agent. Adaptive Behavior, 11(4), 209–243. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059712303114001 Bechtel, W. (2008). Mental mechanisms: Philosophical perspectives on cognitive neuroscience. Taylor & Francis. Bechtel, W., & Abrahamsen, A. (2010). Dynamic mechanistic explanation: Computational modeling of circadian rhythms as an exemplar for cognitive science. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A, 41(3), 321–333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsa.2010.07.003 Becker, W. J. (2013). The premonitory phase of migraine and migraine management. Cephalalgia, 33(13), 1117–1121. https://doi.org/10.1177/0333102412437390 Blumenfeld, H., & Taylor, J. (2003). Why do seizures cause loss of consciousness? The Neuroscientist: A Review Journal Bringing Neurobiology, Neurology and Psychiatry, 9(5), 301–310. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073858403255624 Blumenfeld, H., & Meador, K. J. (2014). Consciousness as a useful concept in Epilepsy classification. Epilepsia, 55(8), 1145–1150. https://doi.org/10.1111/epi.12588 Boone, W., & Piccinini, G. (2016). The cognitive neuroscience revolution. Synthese, 193, 1509–1534. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-015-0783-4 Bronnec, M. L. A., Altenmüller, D., Fuchs, M., Lahmann, T., Schulze-Bonhage, C., A., & Bauer, P. R. (2023). What is this strange sensation? A qualitative exploration of metaphors used to verbalise hard-to-describe experiences by people with Epilepsy. Epilepsy & Behavior, 138, 108963. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2022.108963 Chalmers, D. J. (2013). How can we construct a science of consciousness? Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1303(1), 25–35. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12166 Colombo, M., & Heinz, A. (2019). Explanatory integration, computational phenotypes, and dimensional psychiatry: The case of Alcohol Use Disorder. Theory & Psychology, 29(5), 697–718. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354319867392 Commission on Classification and Terminology of the International League against Epilepsy. (1981). Proposal for revised clinical and electroencephalographic classification of epileptic seizures. Epilepsia, 22, 489–501. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1157.1981.tb06159.x Craver, C. F. (2007). Explaining the brain: Mechanisms and the mosaic unity of neuroscience. Clarendon Press. Cummins, R. (2000). How does it work versus what are the laws? Two conceptions of psychological explanation. In F. Keil, & R. A. Wilson (Eds.), Explanation and cognition (pp. 117–145). MIT Press. Dahlem, M. A., & Chronicle, E. P. (2004). A computational perspective on migraine aura. Progress in Neurobiology, 74(6), 351–361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pneurobio.2004.10.003 Dahlem, M. A., & Müller, S. C. (2003). Migraine aura dynamics after reverse retinotopic mapping of weak excitation waves in the primary visual cortex. Biological Cybernetics, 88(6), 419–424. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00422-003-0405-y Dahlem, M. A., & Hadjikhani, N. (2009). Migraine aura: Retracting particle-like waves in weakly susceptible cortex. PLoS One, 4(4), e5007. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0005007 Devinsky, O., Sato, S., & Kufta, C. V. (1989). Electroencephalographic studies of simple partial seizures with subdural electrode recordings. Neurology, 39(4), 527–533. https://doi.org/10.1212/wnl.39.4.527 Ekstein, D., & Schachter, S. C. (2010). Postictal headache. Epilepsy & Behavior, 19(2), 151–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2010.06.023 Elahian, B., Lado, N. E., Mankin, E., Vangala, S., Misra, A., Moxon, K., Fried, I., Sharan, A., Yeasin, M., Staba, R., Bragin, A., Avoli, M., Sperling, M. R., Engel, J., & Weiss, S. A. (2018). Low-voltage fast seizures in humans begin with increased interneuron firing. Annals of Neurology, 84, 588–600. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.25325 Fabricius, M., Fuhr, S., Willumsen, L., Dreier, J. P., Bhatia, R., Boutelle, M. G., Hartings, J. A., Bullock, R., Strong, A. J., & Lauritzen, M. (2008). Association of seizures with cortical spreading depression and peri-infarct depolarisations in the acutely injured human brain. Clinical Neurophysiology, 119(9), 1973–1984. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2008.05.025 Fanselow, M. S., & Pennington, Z. T. (2018). A return to the psychiatric dark ages with a two-system framework for fear. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 100, 24–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2017.10.012 Fertziger, A. P., & Ranck, J. B. Jr. (1970). Potassium accumulation in interstitial space during epileptiform seizures. Experimental Neurology, 26(3), 571–585. https://doi.org/10.1016/0014-4886(70)90150-0 Fisher, R. S., van Emde Boas, W., Blume, W., Elger, C., Genton, P., Lee, P., & Engel, J. Jr. (2005). Epileptic seizures and Epilepsy: Definitions proposed by the International League against Epilepsy (ILAE) and the International Bureau for Epilepsy (IBE). Epilepsia, 46(4), 470–472. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0013-9580.2005.66104.x Fisher, R. S. (2015). Redefining Epilepsy. Current Opinion in Neurology, 28(2), 130–135. https://doi.org/10.1097/WCO.0000000000000174 Fisher, R. S., Cross, J. H., French, J. A., Higurashi, N., Hirsch, E., Jansen, F. E., Lagae, L., Moshé, S. L., Peltola, J., Roulet Perez, E., Scheffer, I. E., & Zuberi, S. M. (2017). Operational classification of seizure types by the International League against Epilepsy: Position paper of the ILAE Commission for Classification and terminology. Epilepsia, 58(4), 522–530. https://doi.org/10.1111/epi.13670 Foldvary-Schaefer, N., & Unnwongse, K. (2011). Localizing and lateralizing features of auras and seizures. Epilepsy & Behavior, 20(2), 160–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2010.08.034 PMID: 20926350. Gallagher, S. (1997). Mutual enlightenment: Recent phenomenology in cognitive science. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 4(3), 195–214. Gentiletti, D., de Curtis, M., Gnatkovsky, V., & Suffczynski, P. (2022). Focal seizures are organized by feedback between neural activity and ion concentration changes. eLife, 11, e68541. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.68541 Gloor, P. (1986). Consciousness as a neurological concept in epileptology: A critical review. Epilepsia, 27(Suppl. 2), S14–S26. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1157.1986.tb05737.x Gloor, P. (1990). Experiential phenomena of temporal lobe Epilepsy. Facts and hypotheses. Brain 113(Pt, (6), 1673–1694. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/113.6.1673 Gnatkovsky, V., Librizzi, L., Trombin, F., & de Curtis, M. (2008). Fast activity at seizure onset is mediated by inhibitory circuits in the entorhinal cortex in vitro. Annals of Neurology, 64, 674–686. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.21519 Golonka, S., & Wilson, A. D. (2019). Ecological mechanisms in cognitive science. Theory & Psychology, 29(5), 676–696. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354319877686 Grafstein, B. (1956). Mechanism of spreading cortical depression. Journal of Neurophysiology, 19(2), 154–171. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.1956.19.2.154 Haas, H. L., & Jefferys, J. G. (1984). Low-calcium field burst discharges of CA1 pyramidal neurones in rat hippocampal slices. The Journal of Physiology, 354, 185–201. https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.1984.sp015371 Hadjikhani, N., Rio, D., Wu, M. S., Schwartz, O., Bakker, D., Fischl, D., Kwong, B., Cutrer, K. K., Rosen, F. M., Tootell, B. R., Sorensen, R. B., & Moskowitz, A. G. (2001). M. A. Mechanisms of migraine aura revealed by functional MRI in human visual cortex. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 98(8), 4687–4692. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.071582498 Haken, H., Kelso, J. A. S., & Bunz, H. (1985). A theoretical model of phase transitions in human hand movements. Biological Cybernetics, 51, 347–442. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00336922 Hansen, J. M., Baca, S. M., Vanvalkenburgh, P., & Charles, A. (2013). Distinctive anatomical and physiological features of migraine aura revealed by 18 years of recording. Brain, 136(12), 3589–3595. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awt309 Hare, E. H. (1966). Personal observations on the spectral march of migraine. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 3(3), 259–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-510X(66)90025-6 Headache Classification Committee of the International Headache Society (IHS) (2018). The International Classification of Headache Disorders, 3rd edition. Cephalalgia, 38(1), 1-211. https://doi.org/10.1177/0333102417738202 Henkel, A., Noachtar, S., Pfänder, M., & Lüders, H. (2002). The localizing value of the abdominal aura and its evolution: A study in focal epilepsies. Neurology, 58(2), 271–276. https://doi.org/10.1212/wnl.58.2.271 Hodgkin, A. L., & Huxley, A. F. (1952). A quantitative description of membrane current and its application to conduction and excitation in nerve. J. Physiol., 117, 500–544. https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.1952.sp004764 Hubel, D. H., & Wiesel, T. N. (1962). Receptive fields, binocular interaction and functional architecture in the cat’s visual cortex. Journal of Physiology (London), 160(1), 106–154. https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.1962.sp006837 Hurlburt, R. T., Alderson-Day, B., Fernyhough, C., & Kühn, S. (2017). Can inner experience be apprehended in high fidelity? Examining brain activation and experience from multiple perspectives. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 43. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00043 Jefferys, J. G., & Haas, H. L. (1982). Synchronized bursting of CA1 hippocampal pyramidal cells in the absence of synaptic transmission. Nature, 300(5891), 448–450. https://doi.org/10.1038/300448a0 Jelliffe, S. E., & White, W. A. (1915). Diseases of the nervous system: A text-book of neurology and psychiatry. Lea & Febiger. Johanson, M., Valli, K., Revonsuo, A., & Wedlund, J. E. (2008). Content analysis of subjective experiences in partial epileptic seizures. Epilepsy & Behavior, 12(1), 170–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2007.10.002. Kaculini, C. M., Tate-Looney, A. J., & Seifi, A. (2021). The history of Epilepsy: From ancient mystery to modern misconception. Cureus, 13(3), e13953. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.13953 Kandel, E. R. (2001). The molecular biology of memory storage: A dialogue between genes and synapses. Science, 294(5544), 1030–1038. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1067020 Kager, H., Wadman, W. J., & Somjen, G. G. (2000). Simulated seizures and spreading depression in a neuron model incorporating interstitial space and ion concentrations. Journal of Neurophysiology, 84(1), 495–512. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.2000.84.1.495 Kanemoto, K., & Janz, D. (1989). The temporal sequence of aura-sensations in patients with complex focal seizures with particular attention to ictal aphasia. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 52(1), 52–56. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.52.1.52 Kaplan, D. M., & Bechtel, W. (2011). Dynamical models: An alternative or complement to mechanistic explanations? Topics in Cognitive Science, 3(2), 438–444. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1756-8765.2011.01147.x Kılınç, S., Campbell, C., Guy, A., & van Wersch, A. (2018). Epilepsy, identity, and the experience of the body. Epilepsy & Behavior, 89, 42–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2018.10.003 Kirchmann, M. (2006). Migraine with aura: New understanding from clinical epidemiologic studies. Current Opinion in Neurology, 19(3), 286–293. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.wco.0000227040.16071.a9 Kyzar, E. J., & Denfield, G. H. (2023). Taking subjectivity seriously: Towards a unification of phenomenology, psychiatry, and neuroscience. Molecular Psychiatry, 28, 10–16. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-022-01891-2 Lashley, K. S. (1941). Patterns of cerebral integration indicated by the scotomas of migraine. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 46(2), 331–339. https://doi.org/10.1001/archneurpsyc.1941.02280200137007 Latham, P. W. (1873). On nervous or sick-headache: Its varieties and treatment. Deighton. Leão, A. A. P. (1944). Spreading depression of activity in the cerebral cortex. Journal of Neurophysiology, 7, 359–390. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.1947.10.6.409 LeDoux, J. E. (2000). Emotion circuits in the brain. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 23(1), 155–184. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.23.1.155 Lennox, W. G., & Cobb, S. (1933). Aura in epilepsy: A statistical review of 1,359 cases. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 30, 374–387. https://doi.org/10.1001/archneurpsyc.1933.02240140138007 Lian, J., Bikson, M., Shuai, J., & Durand, D. M. (2001). Propagation of non-synaptic epileptiform activity across A lesion in rat hippocampal slices. The Journal of Physiology, 537, 191–199. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7793.2001.0191k.x Liou, J. Y., Smith, E. H., Bateman, L. M., Bruce, S. L., McKhann, G. M., Goodman, R. R., Emerson, R. G., Schevon, C. A., & Abbott, L. F. (2020). A model for focal seizure onset, propagation, evolution, and progression. eLife, 9, e50927. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.50927 Litt, B., Esteller, R., Echauz, J., D’Alessandro, M., Shor, R., Henry, T., Pennell, P., Epstein, C., Bakay, R., Dichter, M., & Vachtsevanos, G. (2001). Epileptic seizures may begin hours in advance of clinical onset: A report of five patients. Neuron, 30(1), 51–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0896-6273(01)00262-8 Liu, Y., Guo, X. M., Wu, X., Li, P., & Wang, W. W. (2017). Clinical analysis of partial Epilepsy with auras. Chin Med J (Engl), 130(3), 318–322. https://doi.org/10.4103/0366-6999.198918 Lutz, A. (2002). Toward a neurophenomenology as an account of generative passages: A first empirical case study. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences, 1(2), 133–167. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020320221083 Lüders, H. O., Acharya, J., Baumgartner, C., Benbadis, S., Bleasel, A., Burgess, R., Dinner, D. S., Ebner, A., Foldvary, N., Geller, E., Hamer, H., Holthausen, H., Kotagal, P., Morris, H., Meencke, H. J., Noachtar, S., Rosenow, F., & Sakamoto, A., Steinhoff B. J., Tuxhorn I., Wyllie E. (1998). Semiological seizure classification. Epilepsia, 39(9), 1006–1013. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1157.1998.tb01452.x Machamer, P., Darden, L., & Craver, C. F. (2000). Thinking about mechanisms. Philosophy of Science, 67(1), 1–25. Markus Dahlem (2015, March 4). Migraine aura (fortification) – computer simulation. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GFvuC9dxY9I Milner, P. M. (1958). Note on a possible correspondence between the scotomas of migraine and spreading depression of Leão. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 10(4), 705. https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-4694(58)90073-7 Miłkowski, M. (2016). Integrating cognitive (neuro)science using mechanisms. AVANT the Journal of the Philosophical-Interdisciplinary Vanguard, VII(2), 45–67. https://doi.org/10.26913/70202016.0112.0003 Monaco, F., Mula, M., & Cavanna, A. E. (2005). Consciousness, Epilepsy, and emotional qualia. Epilepsy & Behavior, 7(2), 150–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2005.05.018 Murphy, D. (2017). On the scientific integration of folk psychology. In D. M. Kaplan (Ed.), Explanation and integration in mind and brain science (pp. 119–144). Oxford University Press. Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. Prentice Hall. Nisbett, R. E., & Wilson, T. D. (1977). Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes. Psychological Review, 84, 231–359. Palmini, A., & Gloor, P. (1992). The localizing value of auras in partial seizures: A prospective and retrospective study. Neurology, 42(4), 801–808. https://doi.org/10.1212/wnl.42.4.801 Panteliadis, C. P., Vassilyadi, P., Fehlert, J., & Hagel, C. (2017). Historical documents on Epilepsy: From antiquity through the 20th century. Brain Development, 39(6), 457–463. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.braindev.2017.02.002 Perven, G., & So, N. K. (2015). Epileptic auras: Phenomenology and neurophysiology. Epileptic Disorders: International Epilepsy Journal with Videotape, 17(4), 349–362. https://doi.org/10.1684/epd.2015.0786 Petitmengin, C., Navarro, V.,le, & van Quyen, M. (2007). Anticipating seizure: Pre-reflective experience at the center of neuro-phenomenology. Consciousness and Cognition, 16(3), 746–764. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2007.05.006 Piccinini, G., & Craver, C. (2011). Integrating psychology and neuroscience: Functional analyses as mechanism sketches. Synthese, 183(3), 283–311. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-011-9898-4 Pokropski, M. (2021). Mechanisms and consciousness: Integrating phenomenology with cognitive science. Routledge. Pottkämper, J. C. M., Hofmeijer, J., van Waarde, J. A., & van Putten, M. (2020). The postictal state — what do we know? Epilepsia, 61, 1045–1061. https://doi.org/10.1111/epi.16519 Reggia, J. A., & Montgomery, D. A. (1996). Computational model of visual hallucinations in migraine. Computers in Biology and Medicine, 26(2), 133–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-4825(95)00051-8 Rigato, J., Rennie, S. M., & Mainen, Z. F. (2021). The overlooked ubiquity of first-person experience in the cognitive sciences. Synthese, 198, 8005–8041. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-019-02136-6 Russell, M. B., & Olesen, J. (1996). A nosographic analysis of the migraine aura in a general population. Brain, 119(2), 355–361. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/119.2.355 Scaramelli, A., Braga, P., Avellanal, A., Bogacz, A., Camejo, C., Rega, I., Messano, T., & Arciere, B. (2009). Prodromal symptoms in epileptic patients: Clinical characterization of the pre-ictal phase. Seizure, 18(4), 246–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seizure.2008.10.007 Schott, G. D. (2007). Exploring the visual hallucinations of migraine aura: The tacit contribution of illustration. Brain, 130(6), 1690–1703. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awl348 Scoville, W. B., & Milner, B. (1957). Loss of recent memory after bilateral hippocampal lesions. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 20, 11–21. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.20.1.11 Seth, A. K. (2018). Consciousness: The last 50 years (and the next). Brain and Neuroscience Advances, 2, 2398212818816019. https://doi.org/10.1177/2398212818816019 Shapiro, B. E. (2001). Osmotic forces and gap junctions in spreading depression: A computational model. Journal of Computational Neuroscience, 10(1), 99–120. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008924227961 Sholokhova, S., Bizzari, V., & Fuchs, T. (Eds.). (2022). Exploring phenomenological interviews: Questions, lessons learned and perspectives. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences, 21(1). So, N. K., & Blume, W. T. (2010). The postictal EEG. Epilepsy & Behavior, 19(2), 121–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2010.06.033 Strong, A. J., Fabricius, M., Boutelle, M. G., Hibbins, S. J., Hopwood, S. E., Jones, R., Parkin, M. C., & Lauritzen, M. (2002). Spreading and synchronous depressions of cortical activity in acutely injured human brain. Stroke, 33(12), 2738–2743. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.str.0000043073.69602.09 Taschereau-Dumouchel, V., Michel, M., Lau, H., Hofmann, S. G., & LeDoux, J. E. (2022). Putting the mental back in mental disorders: A perspective from research on fear and anxiety. Molecular Psychiatry, 27(3), 1322–1330. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-021-01395-5 Thompson, E., Noë, A., & Pessoa, L. (1999). Perceptual completion: A case studyin phenomenology and cognitive science. In J. Petitot, F. J. Varela, B. Pachoud,& J.-M. Roy (Eds.), Naturalizing phenomenology: Issues in contemporary phenomenologyand cognitive science (pp. 161–195). Stanford University Press. Tuckwell, H. C., & Miura, R. M. (1978). A mathematical model for spreading cortical depression. Biophys J, 23(2), 257–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3495(78)85447-2 Varela, F. J. (1996). Neurophenomenology: A methodological remedy for the hard problem. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 3(4), 330–349. Wei, Y., Ullah, G., & Schiff, S. J. (2014). Unification of neuronal spikes, seizures, and spreading depression. Journal of Neuroscience, 34(35), 11733–11743. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0516-14.2014 Weiskopf, D. A. (2011). Models and mechanisms in psychological explanation. Synthese, 183, 313–338. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-011-9958-9 Wendling, F., Bartolomei, F., Bellanger, J. J., & Chauvel, P. (2002). Epileptic fast activity can be explained by a model of impaired GABAergic dendritic inhibition. European Journal of Neuroscience, 15(9), 1499–1508. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1460-9568.2002.01985.x Wilkinson, M., & Robinson, D. (1985). Migraine art. Cephalalgia, 5(3), 151–157. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1468-2982.1985.0503151.x Zednik, C. (2011). The nature of dynamical explanation. Philosophy of Science, 78(2), 238–263. https://doi.org/10.1086/659221