Fibre Optic Methods of Prospecting: A Comprehensive and Modern Branch of Geophysics

Geophysical surveys - Tập 42 - Trang 551-584 - 2021
Mulugeta C. Fenta1,2, David K. Potter3, János Szanyi1
1Department of Mineralogy, Geochemistry and Petrology, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
2School of Earth Science, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
3Department of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada

Tóm tắt

Over the past decades, the development of fibre optic cables, which pass light waves carrying data guided by total internal reflection, has led to advances in high-speed and long-distance communication, large data transmission, optical imaging, and sensing applications. Thus far, fibre optic sensors (FOSs) have primarily been employed in engineering, biomedicine, and basic sciences, with few reports of their usage in geophysics as point and distributed sensors. This work aimed at reviewing the studies on the use of FOSs in geophysical applications with their fundamental principles and technological improvements. FOSs based on Rayleigh, Brillouin, and Raman scatterings and fibre Bragg grating sensors are reviewed based on their sensing performance comprising sensing range, spatial resolution, and measurement parameters. The recent progress in applying distributed FOSs to detect acoustic, temperature, pressure, and strain changes, as either single or multiple parameters simultaneously on surface and borehole survey environments with their cable deployment techniques, has been systematically reviewed. Despite the development of fibre optic sensor technology and corresponding experimental reports of applications in geophysics, there have not been attempts to summarise and synthesise fibre optic methods for prospecting as a comprehensive and modern branch of geophysics. Therefore, this paper outlines the fibre optic prospecting methods, with an emphasis on their advantages, as a guide for the geophysical community. The potential of the new outlined fibre optic prospecting methods to revolutionise conventional geophysical approaches is discussed. Finally, the future challenges and limitations of the new prospecting methods for geophysical applications are elucidated.

Tài liệu tham khảo

Ajo-franklin JB, Dou S, Lindsey NJ, Monga I, Tracy C, Robertson M et al (2019) Distributed acoustic sensing using dark fiber for near-surface characterization and broadband seismic event detection. Sci Rep 9(1328):1–14. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-36675-8 Alwis L, Sun T, Grattan KTV (2016) Developments in optical fibre sensors for industrial applications. Opt Laser Technol 78:62–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2015.09.004 Bakku S, Wills P, Fehler M (2014a) Monitoring hydraulic fracturing using distributed acoustic sensing in a treatment well. In: 84th SEG annual international meeting. Denver, USA, pp 5003–5008. https://doi.org/10.1190/segam2014-1559.1 Bakku S, Wills P, Fehler M, Mestayer J, Mateeva A, Lopez J (2014b) Vertical seismic profiling using distributed acoustic sensing in a hydrofrac treatment well. In: SEG Technical Program Expanded Abstracts, 5024–5028. https://doi.org/10.1190/segam2014-1559.1 Baldwin CS (2014) Brief history of fiber optic sensing in the oil field industry. In: Henry AW, Du H, Pickrell G, Udd E, Baldwin CS, Benterou JJ (eds) Proceedings of SPIE, vol 9098. Maryland, United States, pp 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2050550 Ball P (2001) Novel “photonic-band-gap materials” promise to light up the pipes of the telecom network. Their breakthrough? They carry signals through air rather than glass. MIT Technology Review, 1–11. Retrieved from https://www.technologyreview.com/s/400981/the-next-generation-of-optical-fibers/. Accessed 16 Nov 2018 Bao X, Chen L (2011) Recent progress in Brillouin scattering based fiber sensors. Sensors 11(4):4152–4187. https://doi.org/10.3390/s110404152 Bao X, Chen L (2012) Recent progress in distributed fiber optic sensors. Sensors (Switzerland) 12(7):8601–8639. https://doi.org/10.3390/s120708601 Barberan C, Allanic C, Avila D, Billiot J, Hartog A, Frignet B, Lees G (2012) Multi-offset seismic acquisition using optical fiber behind tubing. In: 74th EAGE conference and exhibition. Copenhagen, Denmark Barfoot D (2013) Efficient vertical seismic profiling using fiber-optic distributed acoustic sensing and real-time processing. In: EAGE Borehole Geophysics Workshop II. St. Julain’s, Malta Barrias A, Casas JR, Villalba S (2016) A review of distributed optical fiber sensors for civil engineering applications. Sensors. https://doi.org/10.3390/s16050748 Brown GA, Hartog A (2002) Optical fiber sensors in upstream oil and Gas. J Petrol Technol 54(11):63–65. https://doi.org/10.2118/79080-JPT Castrellon-Uribe J (2012) Optical fiber sensors: an overview. In: Yasin M (ed) Fiber optic sensors. IntechOpen, Rijeka, pp 1–27. https://doi.org/10.5772/28529 Chabay I (1982) Optical waveguides. Photon plumbing for the chemistry lab: fiber optics, waveguides, and evanescent waves as tools for chemical analysis. Anal Chem 54(9):1071A-1080A. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac00246a004 Chen R, Yan A, Wang Q, Chen KP (2014) Fiber-optic flow sensors for high-temperature environment operation up to 800 °C. Opt Lett 39(13):3966–3969. https://doi.org/10.1364/OL.39.003966 Constantinou A, Farahani A, Cuny T, Hartog AH (2016) Improving DAS acquisition by real-time monitoring of wireline cable coupling. In: 86th SEG annual meeting. Dallas, USA, Expanded Abstracts, pp 5603–5607. https://doi.org/10.1190/segam2016-13950092.1 Correa J, Egorov A, Tertyshnikov K, Bona A, Pevz-Ner R, Dean T et al (2017) Analysis of signal to noise and directivity characteristics of DAS VSP at near and far offsets—a CO2CRC Otway Project data example. Lead Edge 36:9941–9947. https://doi.org/10.1190/tle36120994a1.1 Correa J, Pevzner R, Bona A, Tertyshnikov K, Freifeld B, Robertson M, Daley T (2019) 3D vertical seismic profile acquired with distributed acoustic sensing on tubing installation: a case study from the CO2CRC Otway Project. Interpretation, SEG Special Section. https://doi.org/10.1190/INT-2018-0086.1 Daley TM, Freifeld BM, Ajo-Franklin J, Dou S, Pevzner R, Shulakova V et al (2013) Field testing of fiber-optic distributed acoustic sensing (DAS) for subsurface seismic monitoring. Leading Edge 32(6):699–706. https://doi.org/10.1190/tle32060699.1 Daley TM, Miller DE, Dodds K, Cook P, Freifeld BM (2016) Field testing of modular borehole monitoring with simultaneous distributed acoustic sensing and geophone vertical seismic profiles at Citronelle, Alabama. Geophys Prospect 64(5):1318–1334. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2478.12324 Danardatu H, Gregersen S, Altern E, Pellegrini I (2014) Data acquisition and processing of carbon rod conveyed DTS and DAS in very long horizontal wells: first trial in North Sea Danish Sector. In: SPE annual technical conference and exhibition, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Dean T, Cuny T, Hartog A (2015) Determination of the optimum gauge length for borehole seismic surveys acquired using distributed vibration sensing. In 77th EAGE conference & exhibition, expanded abstracts. Madrid, Spain. https://doi.org/10.3997/2214-4609.201412740 Dean T, Cuny T, Hartog A (2016) The effect of gauge length on axially incident p-waves measured using fibre optic distributed vibration sensing. Geophys Prospect 65:184–193. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2478.12419 Domingues MF, Rodriguez C, Martins J, Tavares C, Marques C, Alberto N et al (2018) Cost-effective optical fiber pressure sensor based on intrinsic Fabry–Perot interferometric micro-cavities. Opt Fiber Technol 42(February):56–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yofte.2018.02.016 Dong Y, Zhang H, Chen L, Bao X (2012) 2 cm spatial-resolution and 2 km range Brillouin optical fiber sensor using a transient differential pulse pair. Appl Opt 51(9):1229–1235. https://doi.org/10.1364/ao.51.001229 Elprocus (2019) Introduction to fiber optic sensors and their types with applications. https://www.elprocus.com/diffrent-types-of-fiber-optic-sensors/ Farhadiroushan M, Parker T, Shatalin S (2016) Method and apparatus for optical sensing. WO Patent App. PCT/GB2016/050625. Ferdinand P (2014) The evolution of optical fiber sensors technologies during the 35 last years and their applications in structure health monitoring. In: 7th European workshop on structural health monitoring. Nantes, France Fernández-Ruiz M, Soto M, Williams E, Martin-Lopez S, Zhan Z, Gonzalez-Herraez M, Martins H (2020) Distributed acoustic sensing for seismic activity monitoring. APL Photon 5(030901):1–16. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5139602 Fidanboylu K, Efendioglu H (2009) Fiber optic sensors and their applications. In: 5th International Advanced Technologies Symposium (IATS’09), Karabuk, Turkey, pp 1–6. https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2004-2131 Frings J, Walk T (2011) Distributed fiber optic sensing enhances pipeline safety and security. Oil Gas Eur Mag 3:2–4 Froggatt M, Moore J (1998) High-spatial-resolution distributed strain measurement in optical fiber with Rayleigh scatter. Appl Opt 37(10):1735–1740. https://doi.org/10.1364/AO.37.001735 Ghahfarokhi P, Carr T, Song L, Shukla P, Pankaji P (2018) Seismic attributes application for the distributed acoustic sensing data for the marcellus shale: new insights to cross-stage flow communication. In: SPE hydraulic fracturing technology conference and exhibition. Texas, pp 1–20. https://doi.org/10.2118/189888-MS Hansen H, Bakkevig M, Kluth R (2009) ZipLog—the third method for well intervention: practical field experience and unique opportunities for the future. In: SPE offshore Europe oil and gas conference and exhibition. Aberdeen, UK, pp 1–5 Hardage B (1981) An examination of tube wave noise in vertical seismic. Geophysics 46:892–903. https://doi.org/10.1190/1.1441228 Harris K (2017) The use of distributed acoustic sensing for 4D monitoring using vertical seismic profiles: results from the aquistore CO2 storage project. Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario. Retrieved from https://curve.carleton.ca/b00ef536-8930-47c6-87ce-f2a9b858739f Hartog A (2017) In: Mendez A (ed) An introduction to distributed optical fibre sensors. Taylor & Francis Group Hecht J (1999) City of light: the story of fiber optics. Oxford University Press, Oxford . https://doi.org/10.1353/tech.2002.0013 Hecht J (2002) Understanding fiber optics, 4th edn. Prentice Hall, London Henninges J, Zimmermann G, Büttner G, Schrötter J, Erbas K, Huenges E (2005) Wireline distributed temperature measurements and permanent installations behind casing . In: Proceedings world geothermal congress. Antalya, Turkey, pp 1–5 Hill K, Fujii Y, Johnson D, Kawasaki B, Hill K, Fujii Y et al (1978) Photosensitivity in optical fiber waveguides: application to reflection filter fabrication. Appl Phys Lett 32(10):647–649. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.89881 Hornman J (2017) Field trial of seismic recording using distributed acoustic sensing with broadside sensitive fibre-optic cables. Geophys Prospect 65:35–46. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2478.12358 Hornman K, Kuvshinov B, Zwartjes P, Franzen A (2013) Field trial of a broadside-sensitive distributed acoustic sensing cable for surface seismic. In: 75th EAGE conference and exhibition, pp 1–2. London, UK. Extended Abstracts: European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers. https://doi.org/10.3997/2214-4609.20130383 Hurtig E, Grobwig S, Kuhn K (1997) Distributed fibre optic temperature sensing: a new tool for long-term and short-term temperature monitoring in boreholes. Energy Sources 19(1):1495–1498. https://doi.org/10.1080/00908319708908832 Jackson J (2009) Classical electrodynamics, 3rd edn. Wiley, New York Jenny R (2000) Fundamentals of fiber optics. An introduction for beginners. New York Jones D (1998) Introduction to fiber optics. Navy electricity and electronics training series. NAVEDTRA Jousset P, Reinsch T, Ryberg T, Blanck H, Clarke A, Aghayev R et al (2018) Dynamic strain determination using fibre-optic cables allows imaging of seismological and structural features. Nat Commun. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-04860-y Jreij S, Trainor-Guitton W, Simmons J (2018) Improving point-sensor image resolution with distributed acoustic sensing at Brady’s enhanced geothermal system. In: 43rd workshop on geothermal reservoir engineering, Stanford University, pp 1–12 Karrenbach M, Cole S, Ridge A, Boone K, Kahn D, Rich J et al (2019) Fiber-optic distributed acoustic sensing of microseismicity, strain and temperature during hydraulic fracturing. Geophysics 84(1):D11–D23. https://doi.org/10.1190/geo2017-0396.1 Kuvshinov B (2016) Interaction of helically wound fibre-optic cables with plane seismic waves. Geophys Prospect 64:671–688. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2478.12303 Li M, Wang H, Tao G (2015) Current and future applications of distributed acoustic sensing as a new reservoir geophysics tool. Open Petrol Eng J 8(1):272–281. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874834120150625E008 Li Z, Zhan Z (2018) Pushing the limit of earthquake detection with distributed acoustic sensing and template matching: a case study at the Brady geothermal field. Geophys J Int 215:1583–1593. https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggy359 Lindsey N, Martin E, Dreger D, Freifeld B, Cole S, James S et al (2017) Fiber-optic network observations of earthquake wavefields. Geophys Res Lett 44(23):11792–11799. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL075722 Liu X, Jin B, Bai Q, Wang Y, Wang D, Wang Y (2016) Distributed fiber-optic sensors for vibration detection. Sensors 16:1–31. https://doi.org/10.3390/s16081164 López-Higuera J (1998) Optical sensors. Universidad de Cantabria, Cantabria Lu P, Lalam N, Badar M, Liu B, Chorpening BT, Buric MP, Ohodnicki PR (2019a) Distributed optical fiber sensing: review and perspective. Appl Phys Rev 6(4):1–35. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5113955 Lu X, Thomas P, Hellevang J (2019b) A review of methods for fibre-optic distributed chemical sensing. Sensors 19(2876):2–20. https://doi.org/10.3390/s19132876 Lumens P (2014) Fibre-optic sensing for application in oil and gas wells. Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven. https://doi.org/10.6100/IR769555 Mahajan V (2014) Fundamentals of geometrical optics. Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers, Washington Marra G, Clivati C, Luckett R, Tampellini A, Kronjäger J, Wright L et al (2018) Ultrastable laser interferometry for earthquake detection with terrestrial and submarine cables. Science 361(6401):486–490. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aat4458 Martins H, Martin-Lopez S, Corredera P, Salgado P, Frazão O, González-Herráez M (2013) Modulation instability-induced fading in phase-sensitive optical time-domain reflectometry. Opt Lett 38(6):872–874. https://doi.org/10.1364/OL.38.000872 Masoudi A, Belal M, Newson T (2013) A distributed optical fibre dynamic strain sensor based on phase-OTDR. Meas Sci Technol. https://doi.org/10.1088/0957-0233/24/8/085204 Mateeva A, Mestayer J, Cox B, Kiyashchenko D, Wills P, Lopez J (2012) Advances in Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS) for VSP. In: 82nd SEG annual international meeting, expanded abstracts. Las Vegas, USA Mateeva A, Lopez J, Chalenski D, Tatanova M, Zwartjes P, Yang Z et al (2017) 4D DAS VSP as a tool for frequent seismic monitoring in deep water. Lead Edge 36:995–1000. https://doi.org/10.1190/tle36120995.1 Mateeva A, Lopez J, Potters H (2014) Distributed acoustic sensing for reservoir monitoring with vertical seismic profiling. Geophys Prospect 62:679–692 Mcdaniel A (2017) District-scale ground heat exchange performance with fiber optic distributed temperature sensing. University of Wisconsin-Madison, Wisconsin Media P (2019) Fiber optics: understanding the basics. Fiber Optics & Communications. Retrieved from https://www.photonics.com/Article.aspx?AID=25151. Cited Dec 2019 Mestayer J, Cox B, Wills P, Kiyashchenko D, Lopez J, Costello M (2011) Field trials of distributed acoustic sensing for geophysical monitoring. In: 81st SEG annual international meeting, expanded abstract. San Antonio, USA. Society of Exploration Geophysicists, pp 4253–4257. https://doi.org/10.1190/1.3628095 Mestayer J, Grandi S, Cox B, Wills P, Mateeva A, Lopez J (2012) Distributed acoustic sensing for geophysical monitoring. In: 74th EAGE conference and exhibition. Copenhagen, Denmark. Miah K, Potter D (2017) A review of hybrid fiber-optic distributed simultaneous vibration and temperature sensing technology and its geophysical applications. Sensors (Switzerland) 17(11):1–25. https://doi.org/10.3390/s17112511 Michie C (2000) Optical fiber sensors for advanced composite materials. In: Comprehensive composite materials. Elsevier Science Ltd, pp 475–491. https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-08-042993-9/00154-6 Molenaar M (2013) Field cases of hydraulic fracture stimulation diagnostics using fiber optic distributed acoustic sensing (DAS) measurements and Analyses. In: SPE Middle East unconventional gas conference and exhibition. Muscat, Oman Momota M, Hasan M (2018) Hollow-core silver coated photonic crystal fiber plasmonic sensor. Opt Mater 76:287–294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optmat.2017.12.049 Motil A, Bergman A, Tur M (2016) [INVITED] State of the art of Brillouin fiber-optic distributed sensing. Opt Laser Technol 78:81–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2015.09.013 Muanenda Y (2018) Recent advances in distributed acoustic sensing based on phase-sensitive optical time domain reflectometry. J Sens 3897873:1–16. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/3897873 Muanenda Y, Oton C, Faralli S, Nannipieri T, Signorini A, Pasquale F (2016) Hybrid distributed acoustic and temperature sensor using a commercial off-the-shelf DFB laser and direct detection. Opt Lett 41(3):587–590. https://doi.org/10.1364/OL.41.000587 Munn J, Coleman T, Parker B, Mondanos M, Chalari A (2017) Novel cable coupling technique for improved shallow distributed acoustic sensor VSPs. J Appl Geophys 138:72–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2017.01.007 Naldrett G, Parker T, Shatalin S, Mondanos M, Farhadiroushan M (2020) High-resolution Carina distributed acoustic fibre-optic sensor for permanent reservoir monitoring and extending the reach into subsea fields. SEG Spec Topic Reservoir Monit 38:71–76. https://doi.org/10.3997/1365-2397.fb2020012 Nesladek N (2017) Comparing distributed acoustic sensing to three-component geophones in an underground mine. Montana Tech. https://digitalcommons.mtech.edu/grad_rsch Ning I, Sava P (2018) Multicomponent distributed acoustic sensing: concept and theory. Geophysics 83(2):1–8. https://doi.org/10.1190/geo2017-0327.1 Olofsson B, Martinez A (2017) Validation of DAS data integrity against standard geophones—DAS field test at aquistore site. Special Section: Fiber-Optic Distributed Sensing. The Leading Edge. SEG (December), pp 981–986. https://doi.org/10.1190/tle36120981.1 Otani T, Goto K, Abe H, Tanaka M, Yamamoto H, Wakabayashi H (1995) 5.3 Gbit/s 11300 km data transmission using actual submarine cables and repeaters. Electron Lett 31(5):380–381 Park J, Bolognini G, Lee D, Kim P, Cho P, Pasquale F, Park N (2006) Raman-based distributed temperature sensor with simplex coding and link optimization. Photon Technol Lett 18(17):1879–1881. https://doi.org/10.1109/lpt.2006.881239 Parker L, Thurber C, Zeng X, Li P, Lord N, Fratta D et al (2018) Active-source seismic tomography at the brady geothermal field, nevada, with dense nodal and fiber-optic seismic arrays. Seismol Res Lett 89(5):1629–1640. https://doi.org/10.1785/0220180085 Parker T, Shatalin SV, Farhadiroushan M, Miller D (2013) Distributed acoustic sensing: recent field data and performance validation. In: 2nd EAGE workshop on permanent reservoir monitoring—current and future trends, extended abstracts. Stavanger, Norway Patterson J, Cardiff M, Coleman T, Wang H, Feigl K, Akerley J, Spielman P (2018) Geothermal reservoir characterization using distributed temperature sensing at Brady Geothermal Field, Nevada. In: 43rd Geothermal reservoir engineering workshop, vol 36. Stanford University Stanford, California, pp 1024a1–1024a7. https://doi.org/10.1190/tle36121024a1.1 Paulsson B, Wylie M, Thornburg J, He R, Hardiman H, Patel D (2019) A fiber optic single well seismic system for geothermal reservoir imaging and monitoring. In: 44th workshop on geothermal reservoir engineering. Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA, pp 1–8 Peng F, Wu H, Jia X, Rao Y, Wang Z, Peng Z (2014) Ultra long high sensitivity ϕ-OTDR for high spatial resolution intrusion detection of pipelines. Opt Express 22(11):138104–213810. https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.22.013804 Perol T, Gharbi M, Denolle M (2018) Convolutional neural network for earthquake detection and location. Sci Adv 4(2):1–24. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1700578 Pevzner R, Urosevic M, Popik D, Shulakova V, Glubokovskikh S, Ziramov S et al (2017) 4D surface seismic tracks small supercritical CO2 injection into the subsurface : CO2CRC Otway Project. Int J Greenhouse Gas Control 63(March):150–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijggc.2017.05.008 Qin Z, Chen L, Bao X (2012) Wavelet denoising method for improving detection performance of distributed vibration sensor. IEEE Photonics Technol Letter 24(7):542–544. https://doi.org/10.1109/LPT.2011.2182643 Rajpoot S, Singh P, Solanki S, Yasin SJ (2017) Future trends in fiber optics communication. Int J Cybern Inform IJCI 6(1/2):23–28. https://doi.org/10.5121/ijci.2017.6203 Rastogi V (2018) Fiber optics lecture notes. Department of Physics Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, NPTEL., (September), 2018. Retrieved September, 2018, https://www.nptel.ac.in/courses/115107095/4. Read T, Bense V, Hochreutener R, Bour O, Le Borgne T, Lavenant N, Selker J (2015) Thermal-plume fibre optic tracking (T-POT) test for flow velocity measurement in groundwater boreholes. Geosci Instrum Methods Data Syst 4(2):197–202. https://doi.org/10.5194/gi-4-197-2015 Read T, Bour O, Selker J, Bense V, Borgne T, Hochreutener R, Lavenant N (2014) Active-Distributed Temperature Sensing to continuously quantify vertical flow in boreholes. Water Resour Res 50:3706–3713. https://doi.org/10.1002/2014WR015273 Rehman S, Mendez A (2012) Optical fibers present opportunities and challenges for geophysical applications. Offshore Mag 72(3):1–5. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja012023z Reinsch T, Henninges J, Götz J, Jousset P, Bruhn D, Lüth S (2015) Distributed acoustic sensing technology for seismic exploration in magmatic geothermal areas. In: World geothermal congress 2015. Melbourne, Australia, pp 1–5 Ren M (2016) Distributed optical fiber vibration sensor based on phase- sensitive optical time domain reflectometry. University of Ottawa, Ottawa Research, & Markets (2017) Distributed Fiber Optic Sensor/Sensing (DFOS) Market Analysis, 2014–2025 Schilke S, Donno D, Chauris H, Hartog A, Farahani A, Pico Y (2016) Numerical evaluation of sensor coupling of distributed acoustic sensing systems in vertical seismic profiling. In: 86th SEG annual meeting, Dallas. Dallas, USA, Expanded Abstracts, pp 677–681 Shah R, Agrawal Y (2011) Introduction to fiber optics: Sensors for biomedical applications. Indian J Pharm Sci 73(1):17–22. https://doi.org/10.4103/0250-474X.89752 Shiloh L, Eyal A, Giryes R (2018) Deep learning approach for processing fiber optic DAS seismic data. OSA Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1364/OFS.2018.ThE22 Sidek O, Afzal H (2011) A review paper on fiber-optic sensors and application of PDMS materials for enhanced performance. In: Symposium on business, engineering and industrial applications (ISBEIA). Langkawi, Malaysia: IEEE, pp 458–463. https://doi.org/10.1109/ISBEIA.2011.6088858 Silkina T (2014) Application of distributed acoustic sensing to flow regime classification. Norwegina University of Sciences and Technology, Trondheim Siska P, Latal J, Bujok P, Vanderka A, Klempa M, Koudelka P et al (2016) Optical fiber based distributed temperature systems deployment for measurement of boreholes temperature profiles in the rock massif. Opt Quant Electron 48(2):1–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11082-016-0379-3 Skoog D, Holler F, Crouch S (2007) Principles of Instrumental Analysis (6th edition). Thomson Brooks/Cole Smolen J, Spek A (2003) Distributed Temperature Sensing. A DTS primer for oil and gas production. Tech., Shell Tanner M, Dyer S, Baek B, Hadfield R, Nam S (2011) High-resolution single-mode fiber-optic distributed Raman sensor for absolute temperature measurement using superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors) High-resolution single-mode fiber-optic distributed Raman sensor for absolute temperature measu. Appl Phys Lett 201110(2011):1–3. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3656702 Tech E (2018) Fiber optic lines could soon deliver earthquake detection too. https://www.digitaltrends.com/cool-tech/fiber-optic-lines-detect-earthquake/ Tosi D, Schena E, Molardi C, Korganbayev S (2018) Fiber optic sensors for sub-centimeter spatially resolved measurements: review and biomedical applications. Opt Fiber Technol 43:6–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yofte.2018.03.007 Udd E (2006) Fiber optic sensors: an introduction for engineers and scientists. Wiley, Hoboken Udd E, Spillman WB (2011) Fiber optic sensors: an introduction for engineers and scientists. Wiley, Hoboken Webster P, Cox B, Molenaar M (2014) Distributed acoustic sensing for cross-well frac monitoring introduction: integrated hydraulic fracture stimulation diagnostics. GeoConvention 1–8 Xue Z, Shi J, Yamauchi Y, Durucan S (2018) Fiber optic sensing for geomechanical monitoring: (1) -distributed strain measurements of two sandstones under hydrostatic confining and pore pressure conditions. Appl Sci 8(2103):1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/app8112103 Yahei K, Mustumi I, Kenya K, Kazuo H (2009) Fiber-optic distributed strain and temperature sensing with very high measurand resolution over long range using coherent OTDR. J Lightwave Technol 27(9):1142–1146 Yang K, Xu T, Ma L, Li F (2019) Theoretical study of optimal gauge length in a helically wound cable for distributed acoustic sensing system. In: Proceedings of SPIE 11340, AOPC 2019: optical fiber sensors and communication, vol 11340. Beijing, China, pp 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2547716 Yang Y, Wang D, Xu B, Wang Z (2018) Optical fiber tip interferometer gas pressure sensor based on anti-resonant reflecting guidance mechanism. Opt Fiber Technol 42(February):11–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yofte.2018.02.013 Yuksel K, Wuilpart M, Moeyaert V, Megret P (2009) Optical frequency domain reflectometry: a review. In: 11th international conference on transparent optical networks. Ponta Delgada,a, Island of São Miguel, Azores, Portugal Zerlux (2019) Laser tools . Retrieved from http://www.zerlux.com Zhang J, Zhu T, Zhou H, Huang S, Liu M, Huang W (2016) High spatial resolution distributed fiber system for multi-parameter sensing based on modulated pulses. Opt Express 24(24):27482–27493. https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.24.027481 Zhang Y, Jung Y, Freifeld B, Finsterle S (2018) Using distributed temperature sensing to detect CO2leakage along the injection well casing. Int J Greenhouse Gas Control 74:9–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijggc.2018.04.011 Zhang Y, Su H, Ma K, Zhu F, Guo Y, Jiang W (2018) Optic-fiber temperature sensor. In: Temperature Sensing. IntechOpen, pp 5–21. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.74207