Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: Neuropsychological and Behavioral Features

Neuropsychology Review - Tập 21 Số 2 - Trang 81-101 - 2011
Sarah N. Mattson1, Nicole Crocker2, Tanya Nguyen2
1Department of Psychology, Center for Behavioral Teratology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA USA
2Department of Psychology, Center for Behavioral Teratology, San Diego State University, San Diego, USA

Tóm tắt

Từ khóa


Tài liệu tham khảo

Abel, E. L. (1990). Fetal alcohol syndrome. Oradell: Medical Economics Company, Inc.

Abel, E. L., & Sokol, R. J. (1987). Incidence of fetal alcohol syndrome and economic impact of FAS-related anomalies. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 19, 51–70.

Abkarian, G. G. (1992). Communication effects of prenatal alcohol exposure. Journal of Communication Disorders, 25, 221–240.

Adnams, C. M., Kodituwakku, P. W., Hay, A., Molteno, C. D., Viljoen, D., & May, P. A. (2001). Patterns of cognitive-motor development in children with fetal alcohol syndrome from a community in South Africa. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 25(4), 557–562.

Alati, R., Al Mamun, A., Williams, G. M., O’Callaghan, M., Najman, J. M., & Bor, W. (2006). In utero alcohol exposure and prediction of alcohol disorders in early adulthood: a birth cohort study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63(9), 1009–1016.

Alati, R., Clavarino, A., Najman, J. M., O’Callaghan, M., Bor, W., Mamun, A. A., et al. (2008). The developmental origin of adolescent alcohol use: Findings from the Mater University Study of Pregnancy and its outcomes. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 136–143.

Aragon, A. S., Coriale, G., Fiorentino, D., Kalberg, W. O., Buckley, D., Phillip Gossage, J., et al. (2008a). Neuropsychological characteristics of Italian children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 32(11), 1909–1919.

Aragon, A. S., Kalberg, W. O., Buckley, D., Barela-Scott, L. M., Tabachnick, B. G., & May, P. A. (2008b). Neuropsychological study of FASD in a sample of American Indian children: processing simple versus complex information. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 32(12), 2136–2148.

Archibald, S. L., Fennema-Notestine, C., Gamst, A., Riley, E. P., Mattson, S. N., & Jernigan, T. L. (2001). Brain dysmorphology in individuals with severe prenatal alcohol exposure. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 43(3), 148–154.

Aronson, M., & Hagberg, B. (1998). Neuropsychological disorders in children exposed to alcohol during pregnancy: a follow-up study of 24 children to alcoholic mothers in Goteborg, Sweden. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 22(2), 321–324.

Autti-Rämö, I., Autti, T., Korkman, M., Kettunen, S., Salonen, O., & Valanne, L. (2002). MRI findings in children with school problems who had been exposed prenatally to alcohol. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 44(2), 98–106.

Baer, J. S., Barr, H. M., Bookstein, F. L., Sampson, P. D., & Streissguth, A. P. (1998). Prenatal alcohol exposure and family history of alcoholism in the etiology of adolescent alcohol problems. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 59(5), 533–543.

Baer, J. S., Sampson, P. D., Barr, H. M., Connor, P. D., & Streissguth, A. P. (2003). 21-year longitudinal analysis of the effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on young adult drinking. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60(4), 377–385.

Bailey, B. N., Delaney-Black, V., Covington, C. Y., Ager, J., Janisse, J., Hannigan, J. H., et al. (2004). Prenatal exposure to binge drinking and cognitive and behavioral outcomes at age 7 years. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 191(3), 1037–1043.

Baldwin, M. R. (2007). Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders and suicidality in a healthcare setting. International Journal of Circumpolar Health, 66, 54–60.

Barnes, D. E., & Walker, D. W. (1981). Prenatal ethanol exposure permanently reduces the number of pyramidal neurons in rat hippocampus. Developmental Brain Research, 1(3), 333–340.

Barr, H. M., Bookstein, F. L., O’Malley, K. D., Connor, P. D., Huggins, J. E., & Streissguth, A. P. (2006). Binge drinking during pregnancy as a predictor of psychiatric disorders on the structured clinical interview for DSM-IV in young adult offspring. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163(6), 1061–1065.

Becker, M., Warr-Leeper, G. A., & Leeper, H. A. (1990). Fetal alcohol syndrome: a description of oral motor, articulatory, short-term memory, grammatical, and semantic abilities. Journal of Communication Disorders, 23, 97–124.

Berman, R. F., & Hannigan, J. H. (2000). Effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on the hippocampus: spatial behavior, electrophysiology, and neuroanatomy. Hippocampus, 10(1), 94–110.

Bertrand, J., Floyd, R. L., Weber, M. K., O’Connor, M., Riley, E. P., Johnson, K. A., et al. (2004). National task force on FAS/FAE: Guidelines for referral and diagnosis. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Bonthius, D. J., & West, J. R. (1990). Alcohol-induced neuronal loss in developing rats: increased brain damage with binge exposure. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 14(1), 107–118.

Bonthius, D. J., Goodlett, C. R., & West, J. R. (1988). Blood alcohol concentration and severity of microencephaly in neonatal rats depend on the pattern of alcohol administration. Alcohol, 5, 209–214.

Bradley, D. M., Beaman, F. D., Moore, D. B., & Heaton, M. B. (1997). Ethanol influences on the chick embryo spinal cord motor system. II. Effects of neuromuscular blockade and period of exposure. Journal of Neurobiology, 32(7), 684–694.

Brown, R. T., Coles, C. D., Smith, I. E., Platzman, K. A., Silverstein, J., Erickson, S., et al. (1991). Effects of prenatal alcohol exposure at school age. II. Attention and behavior. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 13(4), 369–376.

Burd, L., Klug, M. G., Martsolf, J. T., & Kerbeshian, J. (2003). Fetal alcohol syndrome: neuropsychiatric phenomics. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 25(6), 697–705.

Burden, M. J., Jacobson, S. W., & Jacobson, J. L. (2005a). Relation of prenatal alcohol exposure to cognitive processing speed and efficiency in childhood. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 29(8), 1473–1483.

Burden, M. J., Jacobson, S. W., Sokol, R. J., & Jacobson, J. L. (2005b). Effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on attention and working memory at 7.5 years of age. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 29(3), 443–452.

Burden, M. J., Andrew, C., Saint-Amour, D., Meintjes, E. M., Molteno, C. D., Hoyme, H. E., et al. (2009). The effects of fetal alcohol syndrome on response execution and inhibition: an event-related potential study. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 33(11), 1994–2004.

Burden, M. J., Jacobson, J. L., Westerlund, A., Lundahl, L. H., Morrison, A., Dodge, N. C., et al. (2010). An event-related potential study of response inhibition in ADHD with and without prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 34(4), 617–627.

Cantwell, D. P. (1996). Attention deficit disorder: a review of the past 10 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35(8), 978–987.

Carmichael Olson, H., Sampson, P. D., Barr, H., Streissguth, A. P., & Bookstein, F. L. (1992). Prenatal exposure to alcohol and school problems in late childhood: a longitudinal prospective study. Development and Psychopathology, 4, 341–359.

Carmichael Olson, H., Feldman, J. J., Streissguth, A. P., Sampson, P. D., & Bookstein, F. L. (1998). Neuropsychological deficits in adolescents with fetal alcohol syndrome: clinical findings. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 22(9), 1998–2012.

Carney, L. J., & Chermak, G. D. (1991). Performance of American Indian children with fetal alcohol syndrome on the test of language development. Journal of Communication Disorders, 24, 123–134.

Carr, J. L., Agnihotri, S., & Keightley, M. (2010). Sensory processing and adaptive behavior deficits of children across the fetal alcohol spectrum disorder continuum. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 34(6), 1022–1032.

Chasnoff, I. J., Wells, A. M., Telford, E., Schmidt, C., & Messer, G. (2010). Neurodevelopmental functioning in children with FAS, pFAS, and ARND. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 31(3), 192–201.

Chiodo, L. M., Janisse, J., Delaney-Black, V., Sokol, R. J., & Hannigan, J. H. (2009). A metric of maternal prenatal risk drinking predicts neurobehavioral outcomes in preschool children. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 33(4), 634–644.

Church, M. W., Eldis, F., Blakley, B. W., & Bawle, E. V. (1997). Hearing, language, speech, vestibular, and dentofacial disorders in fetal alcohol syndrome. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 21(2), 227–237.

Coffin, J. M., Baroody, S., Schneider, K., & O’Neill, J. (2005). Impaired cerebellar learning in children with prenatal alcohol exposure: a comparative study of eyeblink conditioning in children with ADHD and dyslexia. Cortex, 41(3), 389–398.

Coggins, T. E., Olswang, L. B., Carmichael Olson, H., & Timler, G. R. (2003). On becoming socially competent communicators: the challenge for children with fetal alcohol exposure. International Review of Research in Mental Retardation, 27, 121–150.

Coggins, T. E., Timler, G. R., & Olswang, L. B. (2007). A state of double jeopardy: Impact of prenatal alcohol exposure and adverse environments on the social communicative abilities of school-age children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 38(2), 117–127.

Coles, C. D., Brown, R. T., Smith, I. E., Platzman, K. A., Erickson, S., & Falek, A. (1991). Effects of prenatal alcohol exposure at school age. I. Physical and cognitive development. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 13(4), 357–367.

Coles, C. D., Platzman, K. A., Brown, R. T., Smith, I. E., & Falek, A. (1997a). Behavior and emotional problems at school age in alcohol-affected children. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 21(3 Supplement), 116A.

Coles, C. D., Platzman, K. A., Raskind-Hood, C. L., Brown, R. T., Falek, A., & Smith, I. E. (1997b). A comparison of children affected by prenatal alcohol exposure and attention deficit, hyperactivity disorder. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 21(1), 150–161.

Coles, C. D., Platzman, K. A., & Lynch, M. E. (1999). Behavior problems reported by alcohol-affected adolescents and caregivers. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 23(5 Supplement), 107A.

Coles, C. D., Platzman, K. A., Lynch, M. E., & Freides, D. (2002). Auditory and visual sustained attention in adolescents prenatally exposed to alcohol. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 26(2), 263–271.

Coles, C. D., Lynch, M. E., Kable, J. A., Johnson, K. C., & Goldstein, F. C. (2010). Verbal and nonverbal memory in adults prenatally exposed to alcohol. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 34(5), 897–906.

Coles, C. D., & Zhihao, L. (2011). Functional neuroimaging in the examination of effects of prenatal alcohol exposure. Neuropsychology Review, in press.

Connor, P. D., Streissguth, A. P., Sampson, P. D., Bookstein, F. L., & Barr, H. M. (1999). Individual differences in auditory and visual attention among fetal alcohol-affected adults. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 23(8), 1395–1402.

Connor, P. D., Sampson, P. D., Bookstein, F. L., Barr, H. M., & Streissguth, A. P. (2000). Direct and indirect effects of prenatal alcohol damage on executive function. Developmental Neuropsychology, 18(3), 331–354.

Connor, P. D., Sampson, P. D., Streissguth, A. P., Bookstein, F. L., & Barr, H. M. (2006). Effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on fine motor coordination and balance: a study of two adult samples. Neuropsychologia, 44(5), 744–751.

Conry, J. (1990). Neuropsychological deficits in fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol effects. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 14(5), 650–655.

Cosbey, J., Johnston, S. S., & Dunn, M. L. (2010). Sensory processing disorders and social participation. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 64(3), 462–473.

Crocker, N., Vaurio, L., Riley, E. P., & Mattson, S. N. (2009). Comparison of adaptive behavior in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 33(11), 2015–2023.

Crocker, N., Vaurio, L., Riley, E. P., & Mattson, S. N. (2011). Comparison of verbal learning and memory in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, in press. Published online before print March 18, 2011, doi: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01444.x .

Cummings, J. L. (1993). Frontal-subcortical circuits and human behavior. Archives of Neurology, 50(8), 873–880.

Dalen, K., Bruaroy, S., Wentzel-Larsen, T., & Laegreid, L. M. (2009). Cognitive functioning in children prenatally exposed to alcohol and psychotropic drugs. Neuropediatrics, 40(4), 162–167.

David, P., & Subramaniam, K. (2005). Prenatal alcohol exposure and early postnatal changes in the developing nerve-muscle system. Birth Defects Research Part A: Clinical and Molecular Teratology, 73(11), 897–903.

de los Angeles Avaria, M., Mills, J. L., Kleinsteuber, K., Aros, S., Conley, M. R., Cox, C., et al. (2004). Peripheral nerve conduction abnormalities in children exposed to alcohol in utero. Journal of Pediatrics, 144(3), 338–343.

Disney, E. R., Iacono, W., McGue, M., Tully, E., & Legrand, L. (2008). Strengthening the case: prenatal alcohol exposure is associated with increased risk for conduct disorder. Pediatrics, 122(6), e1225–e1230.

Domellof, E., Fagard, J., Jacquet, A. Y., & Ronnqvist, L. (2010). Goal-directed arm movements in children with fetal alcohol syndrome: a kinematic approach. European Journal of Neurology, 18(2), 312–320.

D’Onofrio, B. M., Van Hulle, C. A., Waldman, I. D., Rodgers, J. L., Rathouz, P. J., & Lahey, B. B. (2007). Causal inferences regarding prenatal alcohol exposure and childhood externalizing problems. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64(11), 1296–1304.

Ervalahti, N., Korkman, M., Fagerlund, A., Autti-Ramo, I., Loimu, L., & Hoyme, H. E. (2007). Relationship between dysmorphic features and general cognitive function in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A, 143A(24), 2916–2923.

Famy, C., Streissguth, A. P., & Unis, A. S. (1998). Mental illness in adults with fetal alcohol syndrome or fetal alcohol effects. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155(4), 552–554.

Fast, D. K., Conry, J., & Loock, C. A. (1999). Identifying fetal alcohol syndrome among youth in the criminal justice system. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 20(5), 370–372.

Franklin, L., Deitz, J., Jirikowic, T., & Astley, S. (2008). Children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: problem behaviors and sensory processing. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 62(3), 265–273.

Fried, P. A., & Watkinson, B. (1988). 12- and 24-month neurobehavioural follow-up of children prenatally exposed to marihuana, cigarettes and alcohol. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 10(4), 305–313.

Fried, P. A., & Watkinson, B. (1990). 36- and 48-month neurobehavioral follow-up of children prenatally exposed to marijuana, cigarettes, and alcohol. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 11(2), 49–58.

Fried, P. A., O’Connell, C. M., & Watkinson, B. (1992). 60- and 72-month follow-up of children prenatally exposed to marijuana, cigarettes, and alcohol: cognitive and language assessment. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 13(6), 383–391.

Fryer, S. L., McGee, C. L., Matt, G. E., Riley, E. P., & Mattson, S. N. (2007a). Evaluation of psychopathological conditions in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Pediatrics, 119, e733–e741.

Fryer, S. L., Tapert, S. F., Mattson, S. N., Paulus, M. P., Spadoni, A. D., & Riley, E. P. (2007b). Prenatal alcohol exposure affects frontal-striatal BOLD response during inhibitory control. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 31(8), 1415–1424.

Gioia, G. A., Isquith, P. K., Guy, S. C., & Kenworthy, L. (2000). Behavior rating inventory of executive function: Professional .anual. Odessa: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.

Goldschmidt, L., Richardson, G. A., Stoffer, D. S., Geva, D., & Day, N. L. (1996). Prenatal alcohol exposure and academic achievement at age six: a nonlinear fit. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 20(4), 763–770.

Goodlett, C. R., Pearlman, A. D., & Lundahl, K. R. (1998). Binge neonatal alcohol intubations induce dose-dependent loss of Purkinje cells. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 20(3), 285–292.

Green, C. R., Mihic, A. M., Brien, D. C., Armstrong, I. T., Nikkel, S. M., Stade, B. C., et al. (2009a). Oculomotor control in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders assessed using a mobile eye-tracking laboratory. European Journal of Neuroscience, 29(6), 1302–1309.

Green, C. R., Mihic, A. M., Nikkel, S. M., Stade, B. C., Rasmussen, C., Munoz, D. P., et al. (2009b). Executive function deficits in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) measured using the Cambridge Neuropsychological Tests Automated Battery (CANTAB). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50(6), 688–697.

Greenbaum, R. L., Stevens, S. A., Nash, K., Koren, G., & Rovet, J. (2009). Social cognitive and emotion processing abilities of children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: a comparison with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 33(10), 1656–1670.

Greene, T., Ernhart, C. B., Martier, S. S., Sokol, R. J., & Ager, J. W., Jr. (1990). Prenatal alcohol exposure and language development. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 14(6), 937–945.

Guerri, C., Bazinet, A., & Riley, E. P. (2009). Foetal alcohol spectrum disorders and alterations in brain and behaviour. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 44(2), 108–114.

Gusella, J. L., & Fried, P. A. (1984). Effects of maternal social drinking and smoking on offspring at 13 months. Neurobehavioral Toxicology and Teratology, 6(1), 13–17.

Hamilton, D. A., Kodituwakku, P., Sutherland, R. J., & Savage, D. D. (2003). Children with fetal alcohol syndrome are impaired at place learning but not cued-navigation in a virtual Morris water task. Behavioural Brain Research, 143(1), 85–94.

Hamre, K. M., & West, J. R. (1993). The effects of the timing of ethanol exposure during the brain growth spurt on the number of cerebellar Purkinje and granule cell nuclear profiles. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 17(3), 610–622.

Hanson, J. W., Jones, K. L., & Smith, D. W. (1976). Fetal alcohol syndrome: experience with 41 patients. Journal of the American Medical Association, 235(14), 1458–1460.

Heaton, M. B., & Bradley, D. M. (1995). Ethanol influences on the chick embryo spinal cord motor system: analyses of motoneuron cell death, motility, and target trophic factor activity and in vitro analyses of neurotoxicity and trophic factor neuroprotection. Journal of Neurobiology, 26(1), 47–61.

Herman, L. E., Acosta, M. C., & Chang, P. N. (2008). Gender and attention deficits in children diagnosed with a fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. The Canadian Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 15(3), e411–e419.

Herrmann, J., Pallister, P. D., & Optiz, J. M. (1980). Tetraectrodactyly and other skeletal manifestations in the fetal alcohol syndrome. European Journal of Pediatrics, 133, 221–226.

Hill, S. Y., Lowers, L., Locke-Wellman, J., & Shen, S. (2000). Maternal smoking and drinking during pregnancy and the risk for child and adolescent psychiatric disorders. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 61(5), 661–668.

Howell, K. K., Lynch, M. E., Platzman, K. A., Smith, G. H., & Coles, C. D. (2006). Prenatal alcohol exposure and ability, academic achievement, and school functioning in adolescence: a longitudinal follow-up. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 31(1), 116–126.

Hoyme, H. E., May, P. A., Kalberg, W. O., Kodituwakku, P., Gossage, J. P., Trujillo, P. M., et al. (2005). A practical clinical approach to diagnosis of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: clarification of the 1996 Institute of Medicine criteria. Pediatrics, 115(1), 39–47.

Jacobson, S. W., Jacobson, J. L., Sokol, R. J., Martier, S. S., & Ager, J. W. (1993). Prenatal alcohol exposure and infant information processing ability. Child Development, 64(6), 1706–1721.

Jacobson, S. W., Jacobson, J. L., & Sokol, R. J. (1994). Effects of fetal alcohol exposure on infant reaction time. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 18(5), 1125–1132.

Jacobson, J. L., Dodge, N. C., Burden, M. J., Klorman, R., & Jacobson, S. W. (2011). Number processing in adolescents with prenatal alcohol exposure and ADHD: Differences in the neurobehavioral phenotype. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 35(3), 431–442.

Janzen, L. A., Nanson, J. L., & Block, G. W. (1995). Neuropsychological evaluation of preschoolers with fetal alcohol syndrome. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 17(3), 273–279.

Jirikowic, T., Carmichael Olson, H., & Kartin, D. (2008a). Sensory processing, school performance, and adaptive behavior of young school-age children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Physical & Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics, 28(2), 117–136.

Jirikowic, T., Kartin, D., & Carmichael Olson, H. (2008b). Children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: a descriptive profile of adaptive function. Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 75(4), 238–248.

Johnson, T. B., & Goodlett, C. R. (2002). Selective and enduring deficits in spatial learning after limited neonatal binge alcohol exposure in male rats. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 26(1), 83–93.

Jones, K. L., & Smith, D. W. (1973). Recognition of the fetal alcohol syndrome in early infancy. Lancet, 2(7836), 999–1001.

Kaemingk, K. L., & Halverson, P. T. (2000). Spatial memory following prenatal alcohol exposure: more than a material specific memory deficit. Child Neuropsychology, 6(2), 115–128.

Kaemingk, K. L., Mulvaney, S., & Tanner Halverson, P. (2003). Learning following prenatal alcohol exposure: performance on verbal and visual multitrial tasks. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 18(1), 33–47.

Kalberg, W. O., Provost, B., Tollison, S. J., Tabachnick, B. G., Robinson, L. K., Hoyme, H. E., et al. (2006). Comparison of motor delays in young children with fetal alcohol syndrome to those with prenatal alcohol exposure and with no prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 30(12), 2037–2045.

Kodituwakku, P. W. (2007). Defining the behavioral phenotype in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: a review. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 31(2), 192–201.

Kodituwakku, P. W., Handmaker, N. S., Cutler, S. K., Weathersby, E. K., & Handmaker, S. D. (1995). Specific impairments in self-regulation in children exposed to alcohol prenatally. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 19(6), 1558–1564.

Kodituwakku, P., Coriale, G., Fiorentino, D., Aragón, A. S., Kalberg, W. O., Buckley, D., et al. (2006a). Neurobehavioral characteristics of children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in communities from Italy: preliminary results. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 30(9), 1551–1561.

Kodituwakku, P. W., Adnams, C. M., Hay, A., Kitching, A. E., Burger, E., Kalberg, W. O., et al. (2006b). Letter and category fluency in children with fetal alcohol syndrome from a community in South Africa. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 67(4), 502–509.

Kodituwakku, P. W., & Kodituwakku, E. L. (2011). From research to practice: An integrative framework for the development of interventions for children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Neuropsychology Review, in press.

Kooistra, L., Ramage, B., Crawford, S., Cantell, M., Wormsbecker, S., Gibbard, B., et al. (2009). Can attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and fetal alcohol spectrum disorder be differentiated by motor and balance deficits? Human Movement Science, 28(4), 529–542.

Kooistra, L., Crawford, S., Gibbard, B., Ramage, B., & Kaplan, B. J. (2010). Differentiating attention deficits in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder or attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 52(2), 205–211.

Kopera-Frye, K., Dehaene, S., & Streissguth, A. P. (1996). Impairments of number processing induced by prenatal alcohol exposure. Neuropsychologia, 34(12), 1187–1196.

Korkman, M., Autti-Rämö, I., Koivulehto, H., & Granström, M.-L. (1998). Neuropsychological effects at early school age of fetal alcohol exposure of varying duration. Child Neuropsychology, 4(3), 199–212.

LaDue, R. A., Streissguth, A. P., & Randels, S. P. (1992). Clinical considerations pertaining to adolescents and adults with fetal alcohol syndrome. In T. B. Sonderegger (Ed.), Perinatal substance abuse: Research findings and clinical implications (pp. 104–131). Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

Lebel, C., Rasmussen, C., Wyper, K., Andrew, G., & Beaulieu, C. (2010). Brain microstructure is related to math ability in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 34(2), 354–363.

Lebel, C., Roussotte, R., & Sowell, E. R. (2011). Imaging the impact of prenatal alcohol exposure on the structure of the developing human brain. Neuropsychology Review, in press.

Livy, D. J., Miller, E. K., Maier, S. E., & West, J. R. (2003). Fetal alcohol exposure and temporal vulnerability: effects of binge-like alcohol exposure on the developing rat hippocampus. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 25(4), 447–458.

Lynch, M. E., Coles, C. D., Corley, T., & Falek, A. (2003). Examining delinquency in adolescents differentially prenatally exposed to alcohol: the role of proximal and distal risk factors. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 64(5), 678–686.

Maier, S. E., & West, J. R. (2001). Regional differences in cell loss associated with binge-like alcohol exposure during the first two trimesters equivalent in the rat. Alcohol, 23(1), 49–57.

Malisza, K. L., Allman, A.-A., Shiloff, D., Jakobson, L., Longstaffe, S., & Chudley, A. E. (2005). Evaluation of spatial working memory function in children and adults with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Pediatric Research, 58(6), 1150–1157.

Marcus, J. C. (1987). Neurological findings in the fetal alcohol syndrome. Neuropediatrics, 18(3), 158–160.

Mattson, S. N., & Riley, E. P. (1998). A review of the neurobehavioral deficits in children with fetal alcohol syndrome or prenatal exposure to alcohol. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 22(2), 279–294.

Mattson, S. N., & Riley, E. P. (1999). Implicit and explicit memory functioning in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 5(5), 462–471.

Mattson, S. N., & Riley, E. P. (2000). Parent ratings of behavior in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure and IQ-matched controls. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 24(2), 226–231.

Mattson, S. N., & Roebuck, T. M. (2002). Acquisition and retention of verbal and nonverbal information in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 26(6), 875–882.

Mattson, S. N., Gramling, L., Delis, D., Jones, K. L., & Riley, E. P. (1996a). Global-local processing in children prenatally exposed to alcohol. Child Neuropsychology, 2(3), 165–175.

Mattson, S. N., Riley, E. P., Delis, D. C., Stern, C., & Jones, K. L. (1996b). Verbal learning and memory in children with fetal alcohol syndrome. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 20(5), 810–816.

Mattson, S. N., Riley, E. P., Sowell, E. R., Jernigan, T. L., Sobel, D. F., & Jones, K. L. (1996c). A decrease in the size of the basal ganglia in children with fetal alcohol syndrome. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 20(6), 1088–1093.

Mattson, S. N., Riley, E. P., Gramling, L. J., Delis, D. C., & Jones, K. L. (1997). Heavy prenatal alcohol exposure with or without physical features of fetal alcohol syndrome leads to IQ deficits. Journal of Pediatrics, 131(5), 718–721.

Mattson, S. N., Riley, E. P., Gramling, L. J., Delis, D. C., & Jones, K. L. (1998). Neuropsychological comparison of alcohol-exposed children with or without physical features of fetal alcohol syndrome. Neuropsychology, 12(1), 146–153.

Mattson, S. N., Goodman, A. M., Caine, C., Delis, D. C., & Riley, E. P. (1999). Executive functioning in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 23(11), 1808–1815.

Mattson, S. N., Calarco, K. E., & Lang, A. R. (2006). Focused and shifting attention in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Neuropsychology, 20(3), 361–369.

Mattson, S. N., Roesch, S. C., Fagerlund, A., Autti-Ramo, I., Jones, K. L., May, P. A., et al. (2010). Toward a neurobehavioral profile of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 34(9), 1640–1650.

McGee, C. L., Fryer, S. L., Bjorkquist, O. A., Mattson, S. N., & Riley, E. P. (2008a). Deficits in social problem solving in adolescents with prenatal exposure to alcohol. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 34(4), 423–431.

McGee, C. L., Schonfeld, A. M., Roebuck-Spencer, T. M., Riley, E. P., & Mattson, S. N. (2008b). Children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure demonstrate deficits on multiple measures of concept formation. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 32(8), 1388–1397.

McGee, C. L., Bjorkquist, O. A., Price, J. M., Mattson, S. N., & Riley, E. P. (2009a). Social information processing skills in children with histories of heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37(6), 817–830.

McGee, C. L., Bjorkquist, O. A., Riley, E. P., & Mattson, S. N. (2009b). Impaired language performance in young children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 31(2), 71–75.

Meintjes, E. M., Jacobson, J. L., Molteno, C. D., Gatenby, J. C., Warton, C., Cannistraci, C. J., et al. (2010). An FMRI study of number processing in children with fetal alcohol syndrome. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 34(8), 1450–1464.

Merikangas, K. R., He, J. P., Brody, D., Fisher, P. W., Bourdon, K., & Koretz, D. S. (2010). Prevalence and treatment of mental disorders among US children in the 2001–2004 NHANES. Pediatrics, 125(1), 75–81.

Meyer, M. J. (1998). Perceptual differences in fetal alcohol effect boys performing a modeling task. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 87(3 Pt 1), 784–786.

Mirsky, A. F., Anthony, B. J., Duncan, C. C., Ahearn, M. B., & Kellam, S. G. (1991). Analysis of the elements of attention: a neuropsychological approach. Neuropsychology Review, 2(2), 109–145.

Morris, R. G. M., Garrud, P., Rawlins, J. N. P., & O’Keefe, J. (1982). Place navigation impaired in rats with hippocampal lesions. Nature, 297, 681–683.

Naidoo, S., Norval, G., Swanevelder, S., & Lombard, C. (2006). Foetal alcohol syndrome: a dental and skeletal age analysis of patients and controls. European Journal of Orthodontics, 28, 247–253.

Nanson, J. L., & Hiscock, M. (1990). Attention deficits in children exposed to alcohol prenatally. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 14(5), 656–661.

Nash, K., Rovet, J., Greenbaum, R., Fantus, E., Nulman, I., & Koren, G. (2006). Identifying the behavioural phenotype in fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: Sensitivity, specificity and screening potential. Archives of Women’s Mental Health, 9(4), 181–186.

O’Connor, M. J. (2001). Prenatal alcohol exposure and infant negative affect as precursors of depressive features in children. Infant Mental Health Journal, 22(3), 291–299.

O’Connor, M. J., & Kasari, C. (2000). Prenatal alcohol exposure and depressive features in children. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 24(7), 1084–1092.

O’Connor, M. J., & Paley, B. (2006). The relationship of prenatal alcohol exposure and the postnatal environment to child depressive symptoms. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 31(1), 50–64.

O’Connor, M. J., Shah, B., Whaley, S., Cronin, P., Gunderson, B., & Graham, J. (2002). Psychiatric illness in a clinical sample of children with prenatal alcohol exposure. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 28(4), 743–754.

O’Hare, E. D., Lu, L. H., Houston, S. M., Bookheimer, S. Y., Mattson, S. N., O’Connor, M. J., et al. (2009). Altered frontal-parietal functioning during verbal working memory in children and adolescents with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Human Brain Mapping, 30(10), 3200–3208.

O’Keefe, J., & Dostrovsky, J. (1971). The hippocampus as a spatial map. Preliminary evidence from unit activity in the freely-moving rat. Brain Research, 34(1), 171–175.

O’Leary, C., Zubrick, S. R., Taylor, C. L., Dixon, G., & Bower, C. (2009). Prenatal alcohol exposure and language delay in 2-year-old children: the importance of dose and timing on risk. Pediatrics, 123(2), 547–554.

O’Malley, K., & Huggins, J. (2005). Suicidality in adolescents and adults with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 50(2), 125.

Pei, J. R., Rinaldi, C. M., Rasmussen, C., Massey, V., & Massey, D. (2008). Memory patterns of acquisition and retention of verbal and nonverbal information in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. The Canadian Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 15(1), e44–56.

Pennington, B. F., & Ozonoff, S. (1996). Executive functions and developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 37(1), 51–87.

Pulsifer, M. B. (1996). The neuropsychology of mental retardation. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 2(2), 159–176.

Rasmussen, C., & Bisanz, J. (2009). Executive functioning in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: profiles and age-related differences. Child Neuropsychology, 15(3), 201–215.

Rasmussen, C. & Bisanz, J. (2010). The relation between mathematics and working memory in young children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. The Journal of Special Education. Published online before print January 8, 2010, doi: 10.1177/0022466909356110 .

Rasmussen, C., Horne, K., & Witol, A. (2006). Neurobehavioral functioning in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Child Neuropsychology, 12, 453–468.

Rasmussen, C., McAuley, R., & Andrew, G. (2007). Parental ratings of children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder on the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functioning (BRIEF). Journal of FAS International, 5. Retrieved from http://www.motherisk.org/FAR/econtent_commonDetail.jsp?econtent_id=134 .

Rasmussen, C., Talwar, V., Loomes, C., & Andrew, G. (2008). Brief report: lie-telling in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 33(2), 220–226.

Rasmussen, C., Wyper, K., & Talwar, V. (2009). The relation between theory of mind and executive functions in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. The Canadian Journal of Clinical Pharmacology (Journal Canadien de Pharmacologie Clinique), 16(2), e370–e380.

Richardson, G. A., Ryan, C., Willford, J., Day, N. L., & Goldschmidt, L. (2002). Prenatal alcohol and marijuana exposure: effects on neuropsychological outcomes at 10 years. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 24(3), 309–320.

Riikonen, R., Salonen, I., Partanen, K., & Verho, S. (1999). Brain perfusion SPECT and MRI in foetal alcohol syndrome. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 41(10), 652–659.

Rodriguez, A., Olsen, J., Kotimaa, A. J., Kaakinen, M., Moilanen, I., Henriksen, T. B., et al. (2009). Is prenatal alcohol exposure related to inattention and hyperactivity symptoms in children? Disentangling the effects of social adversity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50(9), 1073–1083.

Roebuck, T. M., Simmons, R. W., Mattson, S. N., & Riley, E. P. (1998a). Prenatal exposure to alcohol affects the ability to maintain postural balance. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 22(1), 252–258.

Roebuck, T. M., Simmons, R. W., Richardson, C., Mattson, S. N., & Riley, E. P. (1998b). Neuromuscular responses to disturbance of balance in children with prenatal exposure to alcohol. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 22(9), 1992–1997.

Roebuck, T. M., Mattson, S. N., & Riley, E. P. (1999). Behavioral and psychosocial profiles of alcohol-exposed children. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 23(6), 1070–1076.

Roebuck-Spencer, T. M., & Mattson, S. N. (2004). Implicit strategy affects learning in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 28(9), 1424–1431.

Roebuck-Spencer, T. M., Mattson, S. N., Marion, S. D., Brown, W. S., & Riley, E. P. (2004). Bimanual coordination in alcohol-exposed children: role of the corpus callosum. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 10(4), 536–548.

Russell, M., Czarnecki, D. M., Cowan, R., McPherson, E., & Mudar, P. J. (1991). Measures of maternal alcohol use as predictors of development in early childhood. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 15(6), 991–1000.

Santhanam, P., Li, Z., Hu, X., Lynch, M. E., & Coles, C. D. (2009). Effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on brain activation during an arithmetic task: an fMRI study. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 33(11), 1901–1908.

Schonfeld, A. M., Mattson, S. N., Lang, A. R., Delis, D. C., & Riley, E. P. (2001). Verbal and nonverbal fluency in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 62(2), 239–246.

Schonfeld, A. M., Mattson, S. N., & Riley, E. P. (2005). Moral maturity and deliquency after prenatal alcohol exposure. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 66(4), 545–555.

Schonfeld, A. M., Paley, B., Frankel, F., & O’Connor, M. J. (2006). Executive functioning predicts social skills following prenatal alcohol exposure. Child Neuropsychology, 12(6), 439–452.

Simmons, R. W., Wass, T., Thomas, J. D., & Riley, E. P. (2002). Fractionated simple and choice reaction time in children with prenatal exposure to alcohol. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 26(9), 1412–1419.

Simmons, R. W., Thomas, J. D., Levy, S. S., & Riley, E. P. (2006). Motor response selection in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 28(2), 278–285.

Simmons, R. W., Levy, S. S., Riley, E. P., Madra, N. M., & Mattson, S. N. (2009). Central and peripheral timing variability in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 33(3), 400–407.

Simmons, R. W., Thomas, J. D., Levy, S. S., & Riley, E. P. (2010). Motor response programming and movement time in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcohol, 44(4), 371–378.

Simmons, R. W., Nguyen, T. T., Levy, S. S., Thomas, J. D., Riley, E. P., & Mattson, S. N. (2011). Regulation of Isometric Force in Children with Heavy Prenatal Alcohol Exposure. Manuscript submitted for publication.

Sood, B., Delaney-Black, V., Covington, C., Nordstrom-Klee, B., Ager, J., Templin, T., et al. (2001). Prenatal alcohol exposure and childhood behavior at age 6 to 7 years: I. Dose-response effect. Pediatrics, 108(2), e34–e42.

Spohr, H.-L., Willms, J., & Steinhausen, H.-C. (2007). Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in young adulthood. The Journal of Pediatrics, 150(2), 175–179.

Staroselsky, A., Fantus, E., Sussman, R., Sandor, P., Koren, G., & Nulman, I. (2009). Both parental psychopathology and prenatal maternal alcohol dependency can predict the behavioral phenotype in children. Pediatric Drugs, 11(1), 22–25.

Steinhausen, H.-C., & Spohr, H.-L. (1998). Long-term outcome of children with fetal alcohol syndrome: psychopathology, behavior and intelligence. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 22(2), 334–338.

Steinhausen, H.-C., Willms, J., & Spohr, H.-L. (1993). Long-term psychopathological and cognitive outcome of children with fetal alcohol syndrome. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32(5), 990–994.

Steinhausen, H.-C., Willms, J., & Spohr, H.-L. (1994). Correlates of psychopathology and intelligence in children with fetal alcohol syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 35(2), 323–331.

Steinhausen, H.-C., Willms, J., Metzke, C. W., & Spohr, H.-L. (2003). Behavioural phenotype in foetal alcohol syndrome and foetal alcohol effects. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 45(3), 179–182.

Stratton, K., Howe, C., & Battaglia, F. (1996). Fetal alcohol syndrome: Diagnosis, epidemiology, prevention, and treatment. Washington, DC: National Academy.

Streissguth, A. P., Martin, D. C., Barr, H. M., Sandman, B. M., Kirchner, G. L., & Darby, B. L. (1984). Intrauterine alcohol and nicotine exposure: attention and reaction time in 4-year-old children. Developmental Psychology, 20(4), 533–541.

Streissguth, A. P., Barr, H. M., Sampson, P. D., Parrish-Johnson, J. C., Kirchner, G. L., & Martin, D. C. (1986). Attention, distraction and reaction time at age 7 years and prenatal alcohol exposure. Neurobehavioral Toxicology and Teratology, 8(6), 717–725.

Streissguth, A. P., Barr, H. M., Sampson, P. D., Darby, B. L., & Martin, D. C. (1989a). IQ at age 4 in relation to maternal alcohol use and smoking during pregnancy. Developmental Psychology, 25(1), 3–11.

Streissguth, A. P., Sampson, P. D., & Barr, H. M. (1989b). Neurobehavioral dose-response effects of prenatal alcohol exposure from infancy to adulthood. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 562, 145–158.

Streissguth, A. P., Barr, H. M., & Sampson, P. D. (1990). Moderate prenatal alcohol exposure: effects on child IQ and learning problems at age 7 1/2 years. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 14(5), 662–669.

Streissguth, A. P., Aase, J. M., Clarren, S. K., Randels, S. P., LaDue, R. A., & Smith, D. F. (1991). Fetal alcohol syndrome in adolescents and adults. Journal of the American Medical Association, 265(15), 1961–1967.

Streissguth, A. P., Barr, H. M., Olson, H. C., Sampson, P. D., Bookstein, F. L., & Burgess, D. M. (1994a). Drinking during pregnancy decreases word attack and arithmetic scores on standardized tests: adolescent data from a population-based prospective study. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 18(2), 248–254.

Streissguth, A. P., Sampson, P. D., Olson, H. C., Bookstein, F. L., Barr, H. M., Scott, M., et al. (1994b). Maternal drinking during pregnancy: attention and short-term memory in 14-year-old offspring—a longitudinal prospective study. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 18(1), 202–218.

Streissguth, A. P., Barr, H. M., Kogan, J., & Bookstein, F. L. (1996). Final report: Understanding the occurrence of secondary disabilities in clients with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) and fetal alcohol effects (FAE). Seattle, WA: University of Washington Publication Services.

Streissguth, A. P., Bookstein, F. L., Barr, H. M., Sampson, P. D., O’Malley, K., & Young, J. K. (2004). Risk factors for adverse life outcomes in fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol effects. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 25(4), 228–238.

Thomas, J. D., Goodlett, C. R., & West, J. R. (1998a). Alcohol-induced Purkinje cell loss depends on developmental timing of alcohol exposure and correlates with motor performance. Developmental Brain Research, 105(2), 159–166.

Thomas, S. E., Kelly, S. J., Mattson, S. N., & Riley, E. P. (1998b). Comparison of social abilities of children with fetal alcohol syndrome to those of children with similar IQ scores and normal controls. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 22(2), 528–533.

Thorne, J. C., Coggins, T. E., Carmichael Olson, H., & Astley, S. J. (2007). Exploring the utility of narrative analysis in diagnostic decision making: picture-bound reference, elaboration, and fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 50(2), 459–474.

Timler, G. R., Olswang, L. B., & Coggins, T. E. (2005). “Do I know what I need to do?” A social communication intervention for children with complex clinical profiles. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 36(1), 73–85.

Uecker, A., & Nadel, L. (1996). Spatial locations gone awry: object and spatial memory deficits in children with fetal alcohol syndrome. Neuropsychologia, 34(3), 209–223.

Uecker, A., & Nadel, L. (1998). Spatial but not object memory impairments in children with fetal alcohol syndrome. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 103(1), 12–18.

Vaurio, L., Riley, E. P., & Mattson, S. N. (2008). Differences in executive functioning in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 14, 119–129.

Vaurio, L., Riley, E. P., & Mattson, S. N. (2011). Comparison of neuropsychological performance in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure and an IQ-matched comparison group. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, in press. Published online before print February 26, 2011, doi: 10.1017/S1355617711000063 .

Wass, T. S., Simmons, R. W., Thomas, J. D., & Riley, E. P. (2002). Timing accuracy and variability in children with prenatal exposure to alcohol. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 26(12), 1887–1896.

Welsh, M. C., & Pennington, B. F. (1988). Assessing frontal lobe functioning in children: views from developmental psychology. Developmental Neuropsychology, 4(3), 199–230.

Whaley, S. E., O’Connor, M. J., & Gunderson, B. (2001). Comparison of the adaptive functioning of children prenatally exposed to alcohol to a nonexposed clinical sample. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 25(7), 1018–1024.

Willford, J. A., Richardson, G. A., Leech, S. L., & Day, N. L. (2004). Verbal and visuospatial learning and memory function in children with moderate prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 28(3), 497–507.

Willford, J. A., Leech, S. L., & Day, N. L. (2006). Moderate prenatal alcohol exposure and cognitive status of children at age 10. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 30(6), 1051–1059.

Willoughby, K. A., Sheard, E. D., Nash, K., & Rovet, J. (2008). Effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on hippocampal volume, verbal learning, and verbal and spatial recall in late childhood. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 14(6), 1022–1033.

Wozniak, J. R., & Muetzel, R. L. (2011). What does diffusion tensor imaging reveal about the brain and cognition in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders? Neuropsychology Review, in press.

Zoeller, R. T., Butnariu, O. V., Fletcher, D. L., & Riley, E. P. (1994). Limited postnatal ethanol exposure permanently alters the expression of mRNAS encoding myelin basic protein and myelin-associated glycoprotein in cerebellum. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 18(4), 909–916.