Experimental investigation of UAV rotor aeroacoustics and aerodynamics with computational cross-validation

Theys, B., Dimitriadis, G., Hendrick, P., De Schutter, J.: Experimental and numerical study of micro-aerial-vehicle propeller performance in oblique flow. J. Aircr. (2017). https://doi.org/10.2514/1.C033618 Yang, Y., Liu, Y., Li, Y., Acrondoulis, E.: Aerodynamic and aeroacoustic performance of an isolated multicopter rotor during forward flight. AIAA J. (2020). https://doi.org/10.2514/1.J058459 Gur, O., Rosen, A.: Design of a quiet propeller for an electric mini unmanned vehicle. J. Propuls. Power (2009). https://doi.org/10.2514/1.38814 Ning, Z., Hu, H.: An experimental study on the aerodynamic and aeroacoustic performances of a bio-inspired UAV propeller. AIAA Aviation Forum (2017). https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2017-3747 Ning, Z., Hu, H.: An experimental study on the aerodynamics and aeroacoustic characteristics of small propellers. AIAA Sci. Technol. Forum Exposition (2016). https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2016-1785 Deters, R.W., Kleinke, S.: Static Testing of Propulsion Elements for Small Multirotor Unmanned Aerial Vehicles. 35th AIAA Applied Aerodynamics Conference (2017). https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2017-3743 Weitsman, D., Greenwood, E.: Parametric study of eVTOL rotor acoustic design trades. AIAA Scitech Forum (2021). https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2021-1987 Gur, O., Rosen, A.: Comparison between blade-element models of propellers. Aeronaut. J. (2008). https://doi.org/10.1017/S0001924000002669 Krebs, T., Bramesfeld, G., Cole, J.: Transient thrust analysis of rigid rotors in forward flight. Aerospace (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9010028 Deters, R.W., Ananda, G.K., Selig, M.S.: Reynolds Number Effects on the Performance of Small-Scale Propellers. 32nd AIAA Applied Aerodynamics Conference (2014). https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2014-2151 Gur, O., Rosen, A.: Propeller performance at low advance ratio. J. Aircr. (2005). https://doi.org/10.2514/1.6564 McCrink, M.H., Gregory, J.W.: Blade Element Momentum Modelling of Low-Re Small UAS Electric Propulsion Systems. 33rd AIAA Applied Aerodynamics Conference (2015). https://doi.org/10.2514/1.C033622 Grande, E., et al.: Aeroacoustic investigation of a propeller operating at low Reynolds numbers. AIAA J. (2022). https://doi.org/10.2514/1.J060611 Candeloro, P., Ragni, D., Pagliaroli, T.: Small-scale rotor aeroacoustics for drone propulsion: a review of noise sources and control strategies. Fluids 7, 279 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/fluids7080279 Bergmann, O., Götten, F., Braun, C., Janser, F.: Comparison and evaluation of blade element methods against RANS simulations and test data. CEAS Aeronaut. J. 13, 535–557 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13272-022-00579-1 Niemiec, R., Gandhi, F.: Effects of Inflow Model on Stimulated Aeromechanics of a Quadrotor Helicopter. AHS 72nd Annual Forum (2016) Cerny, M., Herzog, N., Faust, J., Stuhlpfarrer, M., Breitsamer, C.: Systematic Investigation of a Fixed-pitch Small-scale Propeller under Non-axial Inflow Conditions. Deutscher Luft- und Raumfahrtkongress (2018) Leishman, J.G.: Principles of helicopter aerodynamics, 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press (2006) Tan, J., Wang, H.: Simulating unsteady aerodynamics of helicopter rotor with panel/viscous vortex particle method. Aerospace Science and Technology 30, 255–268 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ast.2013.08.010 Theys, B., Dimitriadis, G., Andrianne, T., Hendrick, P., De Schutter, J.: Wind Tunnel Testing of a VTOL MAV Propeller in Tilted Operating Mode. International Conference on Unmanned Aircraft Systems (2014). https://doi.org/10.1109/ICUAS.2014.6842358 Kolaei, A., Barcelos, D., Bramesfeld, G.: Experimental analysis of small-scale rotor at various inflow angles. International Journal of Aerospace Engineering (2018). https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/2560370 Lößle, F., Kostek, A., Schmid, R.: Experimental measurement of a UAV rotor’s acoustic emission. Notes on Numerical Fluid Mechanics and Multidisciplinary Design, Vol. (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79561-0_37 Lößle, F., Kostek, A.A., Schwarz, C., Schmid, R., Gardner, A.D., Raffel, M.: Aerodynamics of Small Rotors in Hover and Forward Flight. 48th European Rotorcraft Forum, Winterthur, Switzerland (2022) Abbott, I.H., von Doenhoff, A.E., Stivers, Jr. L.S.: Summary of Airfoil Data. Report Np.824, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (1945) Chen, R.T.N.: A Survey of Non-uniform Inflow Models for Rotorcraft Flight Dynamics and Control Applications. NASA Technical Memorandum 102219. (1989) Pitt, D.M., Peters, D.A.: Theoretical prediction of dynamic-inflow derivatives. Vertica 5(1), 21–34 (1981) Mahmuddin, F., Klara, S., Sitepu, H., Hariyanto, S.: Airfoil lift and drag extrapolation with viterna and montgomerie methods. Energy Procedia 105, 811–816 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2017.03.394 Branlard, E.: Tip-losses with Focus on Prandtl’s Tip Loss Factor. Wind Turbine Aerodynamics and Vorticity-Based Methods (pp.227-245) (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-55164-7_13 Johnson, W.: Helicopter theory. Dover Publications Inc, New York (1980) Ahmed, S.R., Vidjaja, V.T.: Unsteady panel method calculation of pressure distribution on BO 105 model rotor blades. J. Am. Helicopter Soc. 43(1), 47–56 (1998). https://doi.org/10.4050/JAHS.43.47 Yin, J., Ahmed, S.R.: Helicopter main-rotor/tail-rotor interaction. J. Am. Helicopter Soc. 45(4), 293–302 (2000). https://doi.org/10.4050/JAHS.45.293 Winckelman, G.S., Leonard, A.: Contributions to vortex particle methods for the computation of three-dimensional incompressible unsteady flows. J. Comput. Phys. 109, 247–273 (1993). https://doi.org/10.1006/jcph.1993.1216 Wilke, G., et al.: Prediction of Acoustic Far Field with DLR’s Acoustic Code APSIM+. (2019) Mudry, M.: La théorie des nappes tourbillonnaires et ses applications à l’aérodynamique instationnaire, PhD thesis, University of Paris VI (1982) Leishman, J.G., Beddoes, T.S.: A semi-empirical model for dynamic stall. J. Am. Helicopter Soc. 34, 3–17 (1986). https://doi.org/10.4050/JAHS.34.3.3 Tran, C.T., Petot, D.: Semi-empirical model for the dynamic stall of airfoils in view of the application to the calculation of responses of a helicopter blade in forward flight. Vertica 5, 35–53 (1981) Gallas, Q., Boisard, R., Monnier, J.-C., Pruvost, J., Giliot, A.: Experimental and numerical investigation of the aerodynamic interactions between a hovering helicopter and surrounding obstacles. 43nd European rotorcraft Forum, Milan, Italy (2017). https://doi.org/10.1177/0954410014550501 Boisard, R.: Aerodynamic investigation of a helicopter rotor hovering in the vicinity of a building. 74th AHS forum, Phoenix, Arizona, USA (2018) Boisard, R.: Numerical analysis of rotor / propeller aerodynamic interactions on a high speed compound helicopter. J. Am. Helicopter Soc. 67(1), 1–15 (2022). https://doi.org/10.4050/JAHS.67.012005 Prieur, J., Rahier, G.: Comparison of the Ffowcs Williams-Hawkings and Kirchhoff rotor noise calculations. 4th AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference, Toulouse (1998). https://doi.org/10.2514/6.1998-2376 Rahier, G., Prieur, J.: An efficient Kirchhoff integration method for rotor noise prediction starting indifferently from subsonically or supersonically rotating meshes. 53rd AHS Annual Forum, Virginia Beach, USA (1997) Kroll, N., Eisfeld, B., Bleecke, H. M.: The Navier-Stokes code FLOWer. In: Schuller A. (Ed.), Portable Parallelization of Industrial Aerodynamic Applications (POPINDA), Notes on Numerical Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 71, pp. 58-71 (1991) Kowarsch, U., Oehrle, C., Hollands, M., Keßler, M., Krämer, E.: Computation of Helicopter Phenomena Using a Higher Order Method. In: Nagel W. E., Kröner D. H., Resch M. M., High Performance Computing in Science and Engineering ’13, pp. 423-438 (2013) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02165-2_29 Keßler, M., Wagner, S.: Source-time dominant aeroacoustics. Comput. Fluids 33(5–6), 791–800 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compfluid.2003.06.012 Dürrwächter, L., Keßler, M., Krämer, E.: Numerical assessment of open-rotor noise shielding with a coupled approach. AIAA J. (2019). https://doi.org/10.2514/1.J057531 Dürrwächter, L.: Simulation of Installation Effects on Open-Rotor Acoustics with a Coupled Numerical Tool Chain. PhD thesis. University of Stuttgart (2020) Visingardi, A., D’Alascio, A., Pagano, A., Renzoni, P.: Validation of CIRA’s rotorcraft aerodynamic modelling system with DNW experimental data. 22nd European Rotorcraft Forum, Brighton, UK (1996) Morino, L.: A General Theory of Unsteady Compressible Potential Aerodynamics. NASA CR-2464 (1974). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-06153-4_27 Gennaretti, M., Bernardini, G.: Novel boundary integral formulation for blade-vortex interaction aerodynamics of helicopter rotors. AIAA J. 45, 1169–1176 (2007). https://doi.org/10.2514/1.18383 Williams, J. E. F., Hawkings, D. L.: Sound generation by turbulence and surfaces in arbitrary motion. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences 264 (1151) (1969). https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.1969.0031 Casalino, D.: An advanced time approach for acoustic analogy predictions. J. Sound Vib. (2003). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-460X(02)00986-0 Casalino, D., Barbarino, M., Visingardi, A.: Simulation of helicopter community noise in complex urban geometry. AIAA J. (2011). https://doi.org/10.2514/1.J050774 Barbarino, M., Petrosino, F., Visingardi, A.: A high-fidelity aeroacoustic simulation of a VTOL aircraft in an urban air mobility scenario. Aerosp. Sci. Technol. (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ast.2021.107104 Barbarino, M., Bianco, D.: A bem-fmm approach applied to the combined convected Helmholtz integral formulation for the solution of aeroacoustic problems. Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cma.2018.07.034 Petrosino, F., Barbarino, M., Staggat, M.: Aeroacoustics assessment of an hybrid aircraft configuration with rear-mounted boundary layer ingested engine. Appl. Sci. (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/app11072936 Maekawa, Z.: Noise reduction by screens. Appl. Acoust. (1968). https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-682X(68)90020-0 Kurze, U.J.: Noise reduction by barriers. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. (1974). https://doi.org/10.1121/1.1914528