Jadad AR, Moore RA, Carroll D, et al. Assessing the quality of reports of randomized clinical trials: is blinding necessary? Control Clin Trials 1996; 17: 1–12.
Phillips B,Ball C,Sackett D,et al. Levels of evidence and grades of recommendation. Available from URL; http://www.cebm.net/levels_of_evidence.asp, 2003.
Berggren D, Gustafson Y, Eriksson B, et al. Postoperative confusion after anesthesia in elderly patients with femoral neck fractures. Anesth Analg 1987; 66: 497–504.
Campbell DN, Lim M, Muir MK, et al. A prospective randomised study of local versus general anaesthesia for cataract surgery. Anaesthesia 1993; 48: 422–8.
Chung F, Meier R, Lautenschlager E, Carmichael FJ, Chung A. General or spinal anesthesia: which is better in the elderly? Anesthesiology 1987; 67: 422–7.
Forster A, Altenburger H, Gamulin Z. Effects of anesthesia on higher brain functions in the elderly (French). Presse Med 1990; 19: 1577–81.
Kamitani K, Higuchi A, Asahi T, Yoshida H. Postoperative delirium after general anesthesia vs. spinal anesthesia in geriatric patients (Japanese). Masui 2003; 52: 972–5.
Nielson WR, Gelb AW, Casey JE, Penny FJ, Merchant RN, Manninen PH. Long-term cognitive and social sequelae of general versus regional anesthesia during arthroplasty in the elderly. Anesthesiology 1990; 73: 1103–9.
Rasmussen LS, Johnson T, Kuipers HM, et al. Does anaesthesia cause postoperative cognitive dysfunction? A randomised study of regional versus general anaesthesia in 438 elderly patients [see comment]. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2003; 47: 260–6.
Somprakit P, Lertakyamanee J, Sattararatanamai C, et al. Mental state change after general and regional anesthesia in adults and elderly patients, a randomized clinical trial. J Med Assoc Thai 2002; 85(Suppl 3): S875–83.
Williams-Russo P, Sharrock NE, Mattis S, Szatrowski TP, Charlson ME. Cognitive effects after epidural vs general anesthesia in older adults. A randomized trial. JAMA 1995; 274: 44–50.
Wu CL, Hsu W, Richman JM, Raja SN. Postoperative cognitive function as an outcome of regional anesthesia and analgesia. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2004; 29: 257–68.
Asbjorn J, Jakobsen BW, Pilegaard HK, Blom L, Ostergaard A, Brandt MR. Mental function in elderly men after surgery during epidural analgesia. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1989; 33: 369–73.
Bigler D, Adelhoj B, Petring OU, Pederson NO, Busch P, Kalhke P. Mental function and morbidity after acute hip surgery during spinal and general anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 1985; 40: 672–6.
Chung FF, Chung A, Meier RH, Lautenschlaeger E, Seyone C. Comparison of perioperative mental function after general anaesthesia and spinal anaesthesia with intravenous sedation. Can J Anaesth 1989; 36: 382–7.
Cook PT, Davies MJ, Cronin KD, Moran P. A prospective randomised trial comparing spinal anaesthesia using hyperbaric cinchocaine with general anaesthesia for lower limb vascular surgery. Anaesth Intensive Care 1986; 14: 373–80.
Crul BJ, Hulstijn W, Burger IC. Influence of the type of anaesthesia on post-operative subjective physical well-being and mental function in elderly patients. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1992; 36: 615–20.
Edwards H, Rose EA, Schorow M, King TC. Postoperative deterioration in psychomotor function. JAMA 1981; 245: 1342–3.
Fredman B, Zohar E, Philipov A, Olsfanger D, Shalev M, Jedeikin R. The induction, maintenance, and recovery characteristics of spinal versus general anesthesia in elderly patients. J Clin Anesth 1998; 10: 623–30.
Ghoneim MM, Hinrichs JV, O‘Hara MW, et al. Comparison of psychologic and cognitive functions after general or regional anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1988; 69: 507–15.
Haan J, van Kleef JW, Bloem BR, et al. Cognitive function after spinal or general anesthesia for transurethral prostatectomy in elderly men. J Am Geriatr Soc 1991; 39: 596–600.
Hole A, Terjesen T, Breivik H. Epidural versus general anaesthesia for total hip arthroplasty in elderly patients. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1980; 24: 279–87.
Hughes D, Bowes JB, Brown MW. Changes in memory following general or spinal anaesthesia for hip arthroplasty. Anaesthesia 1988; 43: 114–7.
Jhaveri RM. The effects of hypocapnic ventilation on mental function in elderly patients undergoing cataract surgery. Anaesthesia 1989; 44: 635–40.
Jones MJ, Piggott SE, Vaughan RS, et al. Cognitive and functional competence after anaesthesia in patients aged over 60: controlled trial of general and regional anaesthesia for elective hip or knee replacement. BMJ 1990; 300: 1683–7.
Karhunen U, Jonn G. A comparison of memory function following local and general anaesthesia for extraction of senile cataract. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1982; 26: 291–6.
O’Hara DA, Duff A, Berlin JA, et al. The effect of anesthetic technique on postoperative outcomes in hip fracture repair. Anesthesiology 2000; 92: 947–57.
Riis J, Lomholt B, Haxholdt O, et al. Immediate and long-term mental recovery from general versus epidural anesthesia in elderly patients. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1983; 27: 44–9.
Ryhanen P, Helkala EL, Ihalainen O, et al. Effects of anaesthesia on the psychological function of patients. Ann Clin Res 1978; 10: 318–22.
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual - Text Revision (DSM-IV-TRTM, 2000). First MB (Ed.). STAT! Ref Online Electronic Medical Library. 2000. American Psychiatric Association; 2004: 9–17.
Dyer CB, Ashton CM, Teasdale TA. Postoperative delirium. A review of 80 primary data-collection studies. Arch Intern Med 1995; 155: 461–5.
McCusker J, Cole MG, Dendukuri N, Belzile E. Does delirium increase hospital stay? J Am Geriatr Soc 2003; 51: 1539–46.
Inouye SK, Rushing JT, Foreman MD, Palmer RM, Pompei P. Does delirium contribute to poor hospital outcomes? A three-site epidemiologic study. J Gen Intern Med 1998; 13: 234–42.
McCusker J, Cole M, Abrahamowicz M, Primeau F, Belzile E. Delirium predicts 12-month mortality. Arch Intern Med 2002; 162: 457–63.
Moller JT, Cluitmans P, Rasmussen LS, et al. Longterm postoperative cognitive dysfunction in the elderly ISPOCD1 study. ISPOCD investigators. International Study of Post-Operative Cognitive Dysfunction. Lance 1998; 351: 857–61.
Newman MF, Grocott HP, Mathew JP, et al.;Neurologic Outcome Research Group and the Cardiothoracic Anesthesia Research Endeavors (CARE) Investigators of the Duke Heart Center. Report of the substudy assessing the impact of neurocognitive function on quality of life 5 years after cardiac surgery. Stroke 2001; 32: 2874–81.
Abildstrom H, Rasmussen LS, Rentowl P, et al. Cognitive dysfunction 1-2 years after non-cardiac surgery in the elderly. ISPOCD group. International Study of Post-Operative Cognitive Dysfunction. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2000; 44: 1246–51.
Marcantonio ER, Goldman L, Orav EJ, Cook EF, Lee TH. The association of intraoperative factors with the development of postoperative delirium. Am J Med 1998; 105: 380–4.
Canet J, Raeder J, Rasmussen LS, et al.;ISPOCD2 Investigators. Cognitive dysfunction after minor surgery in the elderly. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2003; 47: 1204–10.
Trzepacz PT. Is there a final common neural pathway in delirium? Focus on acetylcholine and dopamine. Semin Clin Neuropsychiatry 2000; 5: 132–48.
Agostini JV, Leo-Summers LS, Inouye SK. Cognitive and other adverse effects of diphenhydramine use in hospitalized older patients. Arch Intern Med 2001; 161: 2091–7.
Grantham C,Geerts H. The rationale behind cholinergic drug treatment for dementia related to cerebrovascular disease. J Neurol Sci 2002; 203–4: 131–6.
Inouye SK, van Dyck CH, Alessi CA, Balkin S, Siegal AP, Horwitz RI. Clarifying confusion: the confusion assessment method. A new method for detection of delirium. Ann Intern Med 1990; 113: 941–8.
Ely EW, Margolin R, Francis J, et al. Evaluation of delirium in critically ill patients: validation of the Confusion Assessment Method for the Intensive Care Unit (CAM-ICU). Crit Care Med 2001; 29: 1370–9.
Rasmussen LS, Larsen K, Houx P, Skovgaard LT, Hanning CD, Moller JT;ISPOCD Group;The International Study of Postoperative Cognitive Dysfunction. The assessment of postoperative cognitive function. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2001; 45: 275–89.
Murkin JM, Newman SP, Stump DA, Blumenthal JA. Statement of consensus on assessment of neurobehavioral outcomes after cardiac surgery. Ann Thorac Surg 1995; 59: 1289–95.
Murkin JM, Stump DA, Blumenthal JA, McKhann G. Defining dysfunction: group means versus incidence analysis--a statement of consensus. Ann Thorac Surg 1997; 64: 904–5.