Evaluating Risk Communication: Examining Target Audience Perceptions About Four Presentation Formats for Fish Consumption Health Advisory Information
Tóm tắt
Information format can influence the extent to which target audiences understand and respond to risk-related information. This study examined four elements of risk information presentation format. Using printed materials, we examined target audience perceptions about: (a) reading level; (b) use of diagrams vs. text; (c) commanding versus cajoling tone; and (d) use of qualitative vs. quantitative information presented in a risk ladder. We used the risk communication topic of human health concerns related to eating noncommercial Great Lakes fish affected by chemical contaminants. Results from the comparisons of specific communication formats indicated that multiple formats are required to meet the needs of a significant percent of anglers for three of the four format types examined. Advisory text should be reviewed to ensure the reading level is geared to abilities of the target audience. For many audiences, a combination of qualitative and quantitative information, and a combination of diagrams and text may be most effective. For most audiences, a cajoling rather than commanding tone better provides them with the information they need to make a decision about fish consumption. Segmenting audiences regarding information needs and communication formats may help clarify which approaches to take with each audience.
Tài liệu tham khảo
B. A. Knuth, “Risk Communication: A New Dimension in Sport-fishery Management,” North Am. J. Fisheries Mgmt. 10(4), 374–381 (1990).
M. Smith, Persuasion and Human Action (Wadsworth Publishing Co., Belmont, CA, 1982).
P. Slovic, “Informing and Educating the Public About Risk,” Risk Anal. 6(4), 403–415 (1987).
W. R. Freudenburg and J. A. Rursch, “The Risks of ‘Putting the Numbers in Context’: A Cautionary Tale,” Risk Anal. 14(6), 949–958 (1994).
B. J. Nordenstam and J. F. DiMento, “Right-to-Know: Implications of Risk Communication Research for Regulatory Policy,” U.S. Davis Law Rev. 23(2), 333–374 (1990).
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Guidance for Assessing Chemical Contaminant Data for Use in Fish Advisories: Volume 4: Risk Communication (Office of Science and Technology, USEPA, Washington, D.C., 1995).
C. M. Velicer and B. A. Knuth, “Communicating Contaminant Risks From Sport-Caught Fish: The Importance of Target Audience Assessment,” Risk Anal. 14(5), 833–841 (1994).
C. Chess, K. L. Salomone, B. J. Hance, and A. Saville, “Results of a National Symposium on Risk Communication: Next Steps for Government Agencies,” Risk Anal. 15(2), 115–125 (1995).
C. Chess, K. L. Salomone, and B. J. Hance, “Improving Risk Communication in Government: Research Priorities,” Risk Anal. 15(2), 127–135 (1995).
P. Slovic, B. Fischoff, and S. Lichtenstein, “Informing People About Risk,” in L. Morris, M. Mazis, and B. Barofsky (eds.), Banbury Report 6: Product Labeling and Health Risks (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York, 1980), pp. 165–181.
P. M. Sandman, N. D. Weinstein, and P. Miller, “High Risk or Low: How Location on a ‘Risk Ladder’ Affects Perceived Risk,” Risk Anal. 14(1), 35–45 (1994).
N. D. Weinstein and P. M. Sandman, “Some Criteria for Evaluating Risk Messages,” Risk Anal. 13(1), 103–114 (1993).
P. A. Cunningham, S. L. Smith, J. P. Tippett, and A. Greene, “A National Fish Consumption Advisory Data Base: A Step Toward Consistency,” Fisheries 19(5), 14–23 (1994).
B. A. Knuth and N. A. Connelly, Objectives and Evaluation Criteria for Great Lakes Health Advisories: Perspectives from Fishery, Health, and Environmental Quality Agencies. Human Dimensions Research Unit Series No. 91–11 (Department of Natural Resources, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 1991).
R. E. Reinert, B. A. Knuth, M. A. Kamrin, and Q. J. Stober, “Risk Assessment, Risk Management, and Fish Consumption Advisories in the United States,” Fisheries 16(6), 5–12 (1991).
H. A. Anderson, J. F. Amrhein, P. Shubat, and J. Hesse, Protocol for a Uniform Great Lakes Sport Fish Consumption Advisory (Great Lakes Sport Fish Advisory Task Force, Madison, WI, 1993).
M. J. Regan and W. H. Desvouges, Communicating Environmental Risks: A Guide to Practical Evaluations (Office of Policy, Planning, and Evaluation, EPA 230–01–91–001, USEPA, Washington, D.C., 1990).
H. Ibrekk and M. G. Morgan, “Graphical Communication of Uncertain Quantities to Nontechnical People,” Risk Anal. 7(4), 519–529 (1987).
R. S. Adler and R. D. Pittle, “Cajolery or Command: Are Education Campaigns an Adequate Substitution for Regulation?” Yale J. Reg. 1, 159–193 (1984).
D. Golding, S. Krimsky, and A. Plough, “Evaluating Risk Communication: Narrative Versus Technical Presentation of Information About Radon,” Risk Anal. 12(1), 27–35 (1992).
V. K. Smith, W. H. Desvouges, F. R. Johnson, and A. Fisher, “Can Public Information Programs Affect Risk Perceptions?” J. Policy Anal. Mgmt. 9(1), 41–59 (1990).
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1985 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting, and Wildlife-Associated Recreation (U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1988).
Que Software, Rightwriter, Version 4.0 (Macmillan Computer Publishing, Carmel, IN, 1990).
SPSS Inc., Statistical Package for the Social Sciences Users Guide; 2nd Ed. (SPSS, Inc. Chicago, IL, 1986).
T. L. Brown and B. T. Wilkins, “Clues to Reasons for Nonresponse, and its Effect on Variable Estimates,” J. Leisure Res. 10(3), 226–231 (1978).
N. A. Connelly, T. L. Brown, and B. A. Knuth, New York Statewide Angler Survey, 1988 (New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Albany, NY, 1990).
N. A. Connelly, B. A. Knuth, and C. A. Bisogni, Effects of the Health Advisory and Advisory Changes on Fishing Habits and Fish Consumption in New York Sport Fisheries. Human Dimensions Research Unit Series No. 92–9 (Department of Natural Resources, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 1992).
U. S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1993 (U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1993).
D. A. Hayes and J. E. Readence, “Transfer of Learning from Illustration-Dependent Text,” J. Educ. Res. 76(4), 245–248 (1983).
D. A. Hayes and W. A. Henk, Facilitative Effects of Analogies and Illustrations on Understanding and Remembering Written Directions, Presentation at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Montreal, Canada (April 1993).
V. K. Smith, W. H. Desvouges, A. Fisher, and F. R. Johnson, “Learning About Radon's Risk,” J. Risk Uncert. 1, 233–258 (1988).
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1991 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting, and Wildlife-Associated Recreation (U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1993).
D. J. Moschandreas and P. E. Chang, “On the Use of a Risk Ladder: Linking Public Perception of Risks Associated with Indoor Air with Cognitive Elements and Attitudes Toward Risk Reduction,” Atmos. Environ. 28(19), 3093–3098 (1994).
N. A. Connelly and B. A. Knuth, Great Lakes Fish Consumption Health Advisories: Angler Response to Advisories and Evaluation of Communication Techniques. Human Dimensions Research Unit Series No. 93–3 (Department of Natural Resources, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 1993).
H. E. B. Humphrey, “Chemical Contaminants in the Great Lakes: The Human Health Aspect,” in M. S. Evans (ed.), Toxic Contaminants and Ecosystem Health: A Great Lakes Focus (John Wiley and Sons, NY, 1988), pp. 153–165.