European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases: 2021 update on the treatment guidance document for Clostridioides difficile infection in adults

Clinical Microbiology and Infection - Tập 27 - Trang S1-S21 - 2021
Joffrey van Prehn1, Elena Reigadas2, Erik Vogelzang3, Emilio Bouza2, Adriana Hristea4, Benoît Guéry5, Marcela Krůtová6, Torbjörn Norén7, Franz Allerberger8, John Coia9, Abraham Goorhuis10, Tessel M. van Rossen3, Rogier E. Ooijevaar11, Karen Burns12, Bente Olesen13, Sarah Tschudin‐Sutter14, Mark H. Wilcox15, Maria J. G. T. Vehreschild16,17, Fidelma Fitzpatrick18,19, Ed J. Kuijper1,20
1Department of Medical Microbiology, Centre for Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
2Department of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain
3Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Location VUmc, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
4University of Medicine and Pharmacy Carol Davila, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Prof Dr Matei Bals, Romania
5Infectious Diseases Specialist, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne, Switzerland
6Department of Medical Microbiology, Charles University in Prague and Motol University Hospital, Czech Republic
7Faculty of Medicine and Health, Department of Laboratory Medicine, National Reference Laboratory for Clostridioides difficile, Clinical Microbiology, Örebro University Hospital, Örebro, Sweden
8Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety (AGES), Vienna, Austria
9Department of Clinical Microbiology, Hospital South West Jutland and Department of Regional Health Research IRS, University of Southern Denmark, Esbjerg, Denmark
10Department of Infectious Diseases, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
11Department of Gastroenterology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Location VUmc, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
12Departments of Clinical Microbiology, Beaumont Hospital & Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
13Department of Medical Microbiology, Herlev, Denmark
14Department of Infectious Diseases and Infection Control, University Hospital Basel, University Basel, Universitatsspital, Basel, Switzerland
15Department of Microbiology, Old Medical, School Leeds General Infirmary, Leeds Teaching Hospitals & University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
16Department of Internal Medicine, Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Frankfurt & Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
17German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Bonn-Cologne, Cologne, Germany
18Department of Clinical Microbiology, Beaumont Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
19Department of Clinical Microbiology, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
20National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands

Tóm tắt

Từ khóa


Tài liệu tham khảo

Debast, 2014, European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases: update of the treatment guidance document for Clostridium difficile infection, Clin Microbiol Infect, 20, 1, 10.1111/1469-0691.12418

Ooijevaar, 2018, Update of treatment algorithms for Clostridium difficile infection, Clin Microbiol Infect, 24, 452, 10.1016/j.cmi.2017.12.022

McDonald, 2018, Clinical practice guidelines for Clostridium difficile infection in adults and children: 2017 update by the infectious diseases society of America (IDSA) and society for healthcare epidemiology of America (SHEA), Clin Infect Dis, 66, 987, 10.1093/cid/ciy149

Crobach, 2016, European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases: update of the diagnostic guidance document for Clostridium difficile infection, Clin Microbiol Infect, 22, S63, 10.1016/j.cmi.2016.03.010

Tschudin-Sutter, 2018, Guidance document for prevention of Clostridium difficile infection in acute healthcare settings, Clin Microbiol Infect, 24, 1051, 10.1016/j.cmi.2018.02.020

Higgins, 2011, The Cochrane Collaboration's tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials, BMJ, 343, d5928, 10.1136/bmj.d5928

Hayden, 2013, Assessing bias in studies of prognostic factors, Ann Intern Med, 158, 280, 10.7326/0003-4819-158-4-201302190-00009

Guyatt, 2008, Going from evidence to recommendations, BMJ, 336, 1049, 10.1136/bmj.39493.646875.AE

Huguet, 2013, Judging the quality of evidence in reviews of prognostic factor research: adapting the GRADE framework, Syst Rev, 2, 71, 10.1186/2046-4053-2-71

Brouwers, 2010, Agree II: advancing guideline development, reporting and evaluation in health care, CMAJ, 182, E839, 10.1503/cmaj.090449

Senchyna, 2017, Clostridium difficile PCR cycle threshold predicts free toxin, J Clin Microbiol, 55, 2651, 10.1128/JCM.00563-17

Crobach, 2018, Nucleic acid amplification test quantitation as predictor of toxin presence in Clostridium difficile infection, J Clin Microbiol, 56, 10.1128/JCM.01316-17

Cohen, 2010, Clinical practice guidelines for Clostridium difficile infection in adults: 2010 update by the society for healthcare epidemiology of America (SHEA) and the infectious diseases society of America (IDSA), Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 31, 431, 10.1086/651706

Kuijper, 2006, Emergence of Clostridium difficile-associated disease in North America and Europe, Clin Microbiol Infect, 12, 2, 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01580.x

Knoop, 1993, Clostridium difficile: clinical disease and diagnosis, Clin Microbiol Rev, 6, 251, 10.1128/CMR.6.3.251

Krutova, 2018, The pitfalls of laboratory diagnostics of Clostridium difficile infection, Clin Microbiol Infect, 24, 682, 10.1016/j.cmi.2018.02.026

Lewis, 1997, Stool form scale as a useful guide to intestinal transit time, Scand J Gastroenterol, 32, 920, 10.3109/00365529709011203

Al-Nassir, 2008, Comparison of clinical and microbiological response to treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated disease with metronidazole and vancomycin, Clin Infect Dis, 47, 56, 10.1086/588293

Kuijper, 2008, Decreased effectiveness of metronidazole for the treatment of Clostridium difficile infection?, Clin Infect Dis, 47, 63, 10.1086/588294

Wilcox, 1995, Diarrhoea caused by Clostridium difficile: response time for treatment with metronidazole and vancomycin, J Antimicrob Chemother, 36, 673, 10.1093/jac/36.4.673

Louie, 2006, Tolevamer, a novel nonantibiotic polymer, compared with vancomycin in the treatment of mild to moderately severe Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea, Clin Infect Dis, 43, 411, 10.1086/506349

Surawicz, 2013, Guidelines for diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of Clostridium difficile infections, Am J Gastroenterol, 108, 478, 10.1038/ajg.2013.4

Moudgal, 2012, Clostridium difficile colitis: a review, Hosp Pract (1995), 40, 139, 10.3810/hp.2012.02.954

Kelly, 2012, Can we identify patients at high risk of recurrent Clostridium difficile infection?, Clin Microbiol Infect, 18, 21, 10.1111/1469-0691.12046

Fekety, 1997, Recurrent Clostridium difficile diarrhea: characteristics of and risk factors for patients enrolled in a prospective, randomized, double-blinded trial, Clin Infect Dis, 24, 324, 10.1093/clinids/24.3.324

Pepin, 2006, Management and outcomes of a first recurrence of Clostridium difficile-associated disease in Quebec, Canada, Clin Infect Dis, 42, 758, 10.1086/501126

Figueroa, 2012, Relapse versus reinfection: recurrent Clostridium difficile infection following treatment with fidaxomicin or vancomycin, Clin Infect Dis, 55, S104, 10.1093/cid/cis357

Bauer, 2009, European society of clinical microbiology and infectious diseases (ESCMID): treatment guidance document for Clostridium difficile infection (CDI), Clin Microbiol Infect, 15, 1067, 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.03099.x

Sailhamer, 2009, Fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis: patterns of care and predictors of mortality, Arch Surg, 144, 433, 10.1001/archsurg.2009.51

Bateman, 2013, Adjuvant vancomycin for antibiotic prophylaxis and risk of Clostridium difficile infection after coronary artery bypass graft surgery, J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg, 146, 472, 10.1016/j.jtcvs.2013.02.075

Garey, 2011, A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study to assess the ability of rifaximin to prevent recurrent diarrhoea in patients with Clostridium difficile infection, J Antimicrob Chemother, 66, 2850, 10.1093/jac/dkr377

Alicino, 2016, Increasing incidence of Clostridium difficile infections: results from a 5-year retrospective study in a large teaching hospital in the Italian region with the oldest population, Epidemiol Infect, 144, 2517, 10.1017/S0950268816000935

Ananthakrishnan, 2012, Predictors of severe outcomes associated with Clostridium difficile infection in patients with inflammatory bowel disease, Aliment Pharmacol Ther, 35, 789, 10.1111/j.1365-2036.2012.05022.x

Andrews, 2003, Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea: predictors of severity in patients presenting to the emergency department, Can J Gastroenterol, 17, 369, 10.1155/2003/723471

Archbald-Pannone, 2015, Delirium and other clinical factors with Clostridium difficile infection that predict mortality in hospitalized patients, Am J Infect Control, 43, 690, 10.1016/j.ajic.2015.03.017

Atamna, 2016, The effect of statins on the outcome of Clostridium difficile infection in hospitalized patients, Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis, 35, 779, 10.1007/s10096-016-2597-9

Barker, 2018, Tobacco use as a screener for Clostridium difficile infection outcomes, J Hosp Infect, 98, 36, 10.1016/j.jhin.2017.06.026

Bauer, 2017, Impact of the NAP-1 strain on disease severity, mortality, and recurrence of healthcare-associated Clostridium difficile infection, Anaerobe, 48, 1, 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2017.06.009

Berry, 2017, Is there a relationship between the presence of the binary toxin genes in Clostridium difficile strains and the severity of C. difficile infection (CDI)?, Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis, 36, 2405, 10.1007/s10096-017-3075-8

Bhangu, 2010, Mortality and risk stratification in patients with Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea, Colorectal Dis Off J Assoc Coloproctol Great Britain Ireland, 12, 241, 10.1111/j.1463-1318.2009.01832.x

Boone, 2014, Ribotype 027 Clostridium difficile infections with measurable stool toxin have increased lactoferrin and are associated with a higher mortality, Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis, 33, 1045, 10.1007/s10096-013-2043-1

Caupenne, 2019, Acute clostridioides difficile infection in hospitalized persons aged 75 and older: 30-day prognosis and risk factors for mortality, J Am Med Directors Assoc

Charilaou, 2018, Acute kidney injury impact on inpatient mortality in Clostridium difficile infection: a national propensity-matched study, J Gastroenterol Hepatol, 33, 1227, 10.1111/jgh.14064

Chintanaboina, 2017, Predictors of 30-day mortality in hospitalized patients with Clostridium difficile infection, SouthMedJ, 110, 546

Clohessy, 2014, Severity and frequency of community-onset Clostridium difficile infection on an Australian tertiary referral hospital campus, Int J Infect Dis, 29, 152, 10.1016/j.ijid.2014.08.009

Cohen, 2018, Clostridium difficile fecal toxin level is associated with disease severity and prognosis, United Eur Gastroenterol J, 6, 773, 10.1177/2050640617750809

Das, 2010, Glucocorticoids are associated with increased risk of short-term mortality in hospitalized patients with clostridium difficile-associated disease, Am J Gastroenterol, 105, 2040, 10.1038/ajg.2010.142

De Francesco, 2019, Correlation between tcdB gene PCR cycle threshold and severe Clostridium difficile disease, Anaerobe, 59, 141, 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2019.06.017

Dudukgian, 2010, Difficile colitis--predictors of fatal outcome, J Gastrointest Surg Off J Soc Surg Aliment Tract, 14, 315, 10.1007/s11605-009-1093-2

Figh, 2017, External validation of velazquez-gomez severity score index and ATLAS scores and the identification of risk factors associated with mortality in Clostridium difficile infections, Am Surg, 83, 1347, 10.1177/000313481708301216

Fountain, 2017, Thrombocytopenia in hospitalized patients with severe clostridium difficile infection, J Thromb Thrombolysis, 43, 38, 10.1007/s11239-016-1423-7

Fujii, 2013, Appendectomy and risk of clostridium difficile recurrence, Infect Dis Clin Pract, 21, 28, 10.1097/IPC.0b013e31826e80e0

Hanania, 2016, Fecal calprotectin in the diagnosis of clostridium difficile infection, Infect Dis Clin Pract, 24, 31, 10.1097/IPC.0000000000000312

Henrich, 2009, Clinical risk factors for severe Clostridium difficile-associated disease, Emerg Infect Dis, 15, 415, 10.3201/eid1503.080312

Hubert, 2007, A portrait of the geographic dissemination of the Clostridium difficile North American pulsed-field type 1 strain and the epidemiology of C. difficile-associated disease in Quebec, Clin Infect Dis, 44, 238, 10.1086/510391

Huttunen, 2012, Case fatality associated with a hypervirulent strain in patients with culture-positive Clostridium difficile infection: a retrospective population-based study, Int J Infect Dis IJID Off Publ Int Soc Infect Dis, 16, e532

Kassam, 2016, Clostridium difficile associated risk of death score (CARDS): a novel severity score to predict mortality among hospitalised patients with C. difficile infection, Aliment Pharmacol Ther, 43, 725, 10.1111/apt.13546

Kenneally, 2007, Analysis of 30-day mortality for clostridium difficile-associated disease in the ICU setting, Chest, 132, 418, 10.1378/chest.07-0202

Khanafer, 2016, Factors predictive of severe Clostridium difficile infection depend on the definition used, Anaerobe, 37, 43, 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2015.08.002

Khanna, 2012, The epidemiology of community-acquired Clostridium difficile infection: a population-based study, Am J Gastroenterol, 107, 89, 10.1038/ajg.2011.398

Khanna, 2016, Epidemiology, outcomes, and predictors of mortality in hospitalized adults with Clostridium difficile infection, Intern Emerg Med, 11, 657, 10.1007/s11739-015-1366-6

Khanna, 2013, Acute kidney injury is an independent marker of severity in Clostridium difficile infection: a nationwide survey, J Clin Gastroenterol, 47, 481, 10.1097/MCG.0b013e31826af6fd

Kim, 2017, Fecal calprotectin level reflects the severity of Clostridium difficile infection, Ann Lab Med, 37, 53, 10.3343/alm.2017.37.1.53

Kim, 2016, Clinical characteristics and treatment outcomes of Clostridium difficile infections by PCR ribotype 017 and 018 strains, PLoS One, 11, 10.1371/journal.pone.0168849

Kulaylat, 2018, Development and validation of a prediction model for mortality and adverse outcomes among patients with peripheral eosinopenia on admission for Clostridium difficile infection, JAMA Surg, 153, 1127, 10.1001/jamasurg.2018.3174

Lee, 2016, Clinical outcomes in hospitalized patients with Clostridium difficile infection by age group, Korean J Gastroenterol Taehan Sohwagi Hakhoe Chi, 67, 81, 10.4166/kjg.2016.67.2.81

Leibovici-Weissman, 2017, Risk factors for short- and long-term mortality in very old patients with Clostridium difficile infection: a retrospective study, Geriatr Gerontol Int, 17, 1378, 10.1111/ggi.12866

Lungulescu, 2011, CSI: a severity index for Clostridium difficile infection at the time of admission, J Hosp Infect, 79, 151, 10.1016/j.jhin.2011.04.017

Mascart, 2013, Impact of ribotype 027 on Clostridium difficile infection in a geriatric department, Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis Off Publ Eur Soc Clin Microbiol, 32, 1177, 10.1007/s10096-013-1864-2

Miller, 2010, Health care-associated Clostridium difficile infection in Canada: patient age and infecting strain type are highly predictive of severe outcome and mortality, Clin Infect Dis, 50, 194, 10.1086/649213

Morrison, 2011, Risk factors associated with complications and mortality in patients with Clostridium difficile infection, Clin Infect Dis, 53, 1173, 10.1093/cid/cir668

Na, 2015, A multi-center prospective derivation and validation of a clinical prediction tool for severe Clostridium difficile infection, PLoS One, 10, 10.1371/journal.pone.0123405

Ogielska, 2015, Emergence of community-acquired Clostridium difficile infection: the experience of a French hospital and review of the literature, Int J Infect Dis IJID Off Publ Int Soc Infect Dis, 37, 36

Patel, 2016, Evaluation of advanced age as a risk factor for severe Clostridium difficile infection, J Clin Gerontol Geriatr, 7, 12, 10.1016/j.jcgg.2015.06.003

Pepin, 2004, Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in a region of Quebec from 1991 to 2003: a changing pattern of disease severity, CMAJ, 171, 466, 10.1503/cmaj.1041104

Polivkova, 2016, Clostridium difficile ribotype 176 - a predictor for high mortality and risk of nosocomial spread?, Anaerobe, 40, 35, 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2016.05.002

Rao, 2013, Poor functional status as a risk factor for severe Clostridium difficile infection in hospitalized older adults, J Am Geriatr Soc, 61, 1738, 10.1111/jgs.12442

Rao, 2015, Clostridium difficile ribotype 027: relationship to age, detectability of toxins A or B in stool with rapid testing, severe infection, and mortality, Clin Infect Dis, 61, 233, 10.1093/cid/civ254

Reigadas, 2016, Role of binary toxin in the outcome of Clostridium difficile infection in a non-027 ribotype setting, Epidemiol Infect, 144, 268, 10.1017/S095026881500148X

Scardina, 2015, Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) severity and outcome among patients infected with the NAP1/BI/027 strain in a non-epidemic setting, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 36, 280, 10.1017/ice.2014.45

See, 2014, NAP1 strain type predicts outcomes from Clostridium difficile infection, Clin Infect Dis, 58, 1394, 10.1093/cid/ciu125

Serafino, 2018, Clinical outcomes of Clostridium difficile infection according to strain type. A prospective study in medical wards, Eur J Intern Med, 54, 21, 10.1016/j.ejim.2018.03.015

Shivashankar, 2013, Clinical factors associated with development of severe-complicated Clostridium difficile infection, Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol Off Clin Pract J Am Gastroenterol Assoc, 11, 1466

Starzengruber, 2014, Severe Clostridium difficile infection: incidence and risk factors at a tertiary care university hospital in Vienna, Austria, Wiener klinische Wochenschrift, 126, 427, 10.1007/s00508-014-0549-x

Tamez-Torres, 2017, Impact of Clostridium difficile infection caused by the NAP1/RT027 strain on severity and recurrence during an outbreak and transition to endemicity in a Mexican tertiary care center, Int J Infect Dis IJID Off Publ Int Soc Infect Dis, 65, 44

Taori, 2014, A prospective study of community-associated Clostridium difficile infections: the role of antibiotics and co-infections, J Infect, 69, 134, 10.1016/j.jinf.2014.04.002

Tschudin-Sutter, 2016, Growth patterns of Clostridium difficile - correlations with strains, binary toxin and disease severity: a prospective cohort study, PLoS One, 11, 10.1371/journal.pone.0161711

van der Wilden, 2014, Fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis: prospective development of a risk scoring system, J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 76, 424, 10.1097/TA.0000000000000105

Vojtilova, 2014, Epidemiological factors influencing the development of relapsing and severe Clostridium difficile infection, Epidemiol Mikrobiol Imunol Casopis Spolecnosti Pro Epidemiologii a Mikrobiologii Ceske Lekarske Spolecnosti JE Purkyne, 63, 27

Walk, 2012, Clostridium difficile ribotype does not predict severe infection, Clin Infect Dis, 55, 1661, 10.1093/cid/cis786

Walker, 2013, Relationship between bacterial strain type, host biomarkers, and mortality in Clostridium difficile infection, Clin Infect Dis, 56, 1589, 10.1093/cid/cit127

Welfare, 2011, Co-morbidities as predictors of mortality in Clostridium difficile infection and derivation of the ARC predictive score, J Hosp Infect, 79, 359, 10.1016/j.jhin.2011.08.015

Wilson, 2010, Predictors of death after Clostridium difficile infection: a report on 128 strain-typed cases from a teaching hospital in the United Kingdom, Clin Infect Dis, 50, e77, 10.1086/653012

Xu, 2017, Hospital-acquired Clostridium difficile infection in Mainland China: a seven-year (2009-2016) retrospective study in a large university hospital, Sci Rep, 7, 9645, 10.1038/s41598-017-09961-0

Yong, 2015, Appendectomy: a risk factor for colectomy in patients with Clostridium difficile, Am J Surg, 209, 532, 10.1016/j.amjsurg.2014.12.001

Miller, 2020, Predictors of clostridioides difficile infection-related complications and treatment patterns among nucleic acid amplification test-positive/toxin enzyme immunoassay-negative patients, J Clin Microbiol, 58, 10.1128/JCM.01764-19

Menon, 2021, Changes in the association between diagnostic testing method, PCR ribotype, and clinical outcomes from clostridioides difficile infection: one institution's experience, Clin Infect Dis, 73, e2883, 10.1093/cid/ciaa1395

Korać, 2020, Clostridioides difficile ribotype distribution in a large teaching hospital in Serbia, Gut Pathog, 12, 26, 10.1186/s13099-020-00364-7

Essrani, 2020, The impact of appendectomy in Clostridium difficile infection and length of hospital stay, Cureus, 12

Choi, 2021, Real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) cycle threshold and Clostridioides difficile infection outcomes, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 1

Avni, 2021, The significance of acute kidney injury in Clostridioides difficile infection, Int J Clin Pract, 75, 10.1111/ijcp.13785

Mendez-Bailon, 2020, Heart failure is a risk factor for suffering and dying of Clostridium difficile infection. Results of a 15-year nationwide study in Spain, J Clin Med, 9, 10.3390/jcm9030614

Chiang, 2019, Risk prediction for 30-day mortality among patients with Clostridium difficile infections: a retrospective cohort study, Antimicrob Resist Infect Control, 8, 175, 10.1186/s13756-019-0642-z

Vata, 2019, CLOSTRIDIUM difficile infection IN patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. The experience OF an infectious diseases hospital from North-Eastern Romania, Med Surg J, 123, 506

Mani, 2019, Risk factors for BI/NAP1/027 clostridioides difficile infections and clinical outcomes compared with non-NAP1 strains, Open Forum Infect Dis, 6, 4, 10.1093/ofid/ofz433

Khanna, 2012, Gastric acid suppression and outcomes in Clostridium difficile infection: a population-based study, Mayo Clinic Proc, 87, 636, 10.1016/j.mayocp.2011.12.021

Planche, 2013, Differences in outcome according to Clostridium difficile testing method: a prospective multicentre diagnostic validation study of C difficile infection, Lancet Infect Dis, 13, 936, 10.1016/S1473-3099(13)70200-7

Bauer, 2011, Clostridium difficile infection in Europe: a hospital-based survey, Lancet, 377, 63, 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61266-4

Argamany, 2019, A possible association between statin use and improved Clostridioides difficile infection mortality in veterans, PLoS One, 14, 10.1371/journal.pone.0217423

Leal, 2019, Predictors of mortality and length of stay in patients with hospital-acquired Clostridioides difficile infection: a population-based study in Alberta, Canada, J Hosp Infect, 103, 85, 10.1016/j.jhin.2019.04.007

Nagayoshi, 2020, Clinical significance of a positive Clostridioides difficile glutamate dehydrogenase test on the outcomes of hospitalized older patients, Geriatr Gerontol Int, 20, 1138, 10.1111/ggi.14054

Patel, 2019, Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs impact on the outcomes of hospitalized patients with Clostridium difficile infection, Clin Exp Gastroenterol, 12, 449, 10.2147/CEG.S223886

Tay, 2019, Risk factors and treatment outcomes of severe Clostridioides difficile infection in Singapore, Sci Rep, 9, 13440, 10.1038/s41598-019-49794-7

Origuen, 2019, Toxin B PCR amplification cycle threshold adds little to clinical variables for predicting outcomes in Clostridium difficile infection: a retrospective cohort study, J Clin Microbiol, 57, 10.1128/JCM.01125-18

Milenkovic, 2021, Outcomes of Clostridioides difficile infection in adult cancer and non-cancer patients hospitalised in a tertiary hospital: a prospective cohort study, Eur J Hosp Pharm, 10.1136/ejhpharm-2020-002574

Lopez-Cardenas, 2021, The prognostic value of toxin B and binary toxin in Clostridioides difficile infection, Gut Microbe, 1

Enoch, 2020, Risk of complications and mortality following recurrent and non-recurrent Clostridioides difficile infection: a retrospective observational database study in England, J Hosp Infect, 106, 793, 10.1016/j.jhin.2020.09.025

Carlson, 2020, Eosinopenia and binary toxin increase mortality in hospitalized patients with clostridioides difficile infection, Open Forum Infect Dis, 7, ofz552, 10.1093/ofid/ofz552

Abdelfatah, 2015, Factors predicting recurrence of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) in hospitalized patients: retrospective study of more than 2000 patients, J Investig Med, 63, 747, 10.1097/JIM.0000000000000188

Appaneal, 2019, Predictors of Clostridioides difficile recurrence across a national cohort of veterans in outpatient, acute, and long-term care settings, Am J Health Syst Pharm, 76, 581, 10.1093/ajhp/zxz032

Avni, 2020, Clostridioides difficile infection in immunocompromised hospitalized patients is associated with a high recurrence rate, Int J Infect Dis IJID Off Publ Int Soc Infect Dis, 90, 237

Carpenter, 2016, Identification of factors impacting recurrent Clostridium difficile infection and development of a risk evaluation tool, J Pharm Pharm Sci, 19, 349, 10.18433/J32S41

Cobo, 2018, Prediction of recurrent clostridium difficile infection at the bedside: the GEIH-CDI score, Int J Antimicrob Agents, 51, 393, 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2017.09.010

D'Agostino RB, 2014, Risk estimation for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection based on clinical factors, Clin Infect Dis, 58, 1386, 10.1093/cid/ciu107

Dharbhamulla, 2019, Risk factors associated with recurrent Clostridium difficile infection, J Clin Med Res, 11, 1, 10.14740/jocmr3531w

Drekonja, 2011, Antimicrobial use and risk for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection, Am J Med, 124, 1081 e1-7, 10.1016/j.amjmed.2011.05.032

Eyre, 2012, Predictors of first recurrence of Clostridium difficile infection: implications for initial management, Clin Infect Dis, 55, S77, 10.1093/cid/cis356

Falcone, 2019, Risk factors for recurrence in patients with Clostridium difficile infection due to 027 and non-027 ribotypes, Clin Microbiol Infect, 25, 474, 10.1016/j.cmi.2018.06.020

Freedberg, 2013, Proton pump inhibitors and risk for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection among inpatients, Am J Gastroenterol, 108, 1794, 10.1038/ajg.2013.333

Fujii, 2013, Appendectomy and risk of Clostridium difficile recurrence, Infect Dis Clin Pract, 21, 28, 10.1097/IPC.0b013e31826e80e0

Hebert, 2013, Electronic health record-based detection of risk factors for Clostridium difficile infection relapse, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 34, 407, 10.1086/669864

Im, 2011, The appendix may protect against Clostridium difficile recurrence, Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol The Off Clin Pract J Am Gastroenterol Assoc, 9, 1072

Kimura, 2019, Characterization and risk factors for recurrence of Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile infection in Japan: a nationwide real-world analysis using a large hospital-based administrative dataset, J Infect Chemother, 25, 615, 10.1016/j.jiac.2019.03.011

Larrainzar-Coghen, 2016, First recurrence of Clostridium difficile infection: clinical relevance, risk factors, and prognosis, Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis Off Publ Eur Soc Clin Microbiol, 35, 371, 10.1007/s10096-015-2549-9

Lavergne, 2013, Lymphopenia as a novel marker of Clostridium difficile infection recurrence, J Infect, 66, 129, 10.1016/j.jinf.2012.11.001

Linsky, 2010, Proton pump inhibitors and risk for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection, Arch Intern Med, 170, 772, 10.1001/archinternmed.2010.73

Louie, 2013, Effect of age on treatment outcomes in Clostridium difficile infection, J Am Geriatr Soc, 61, 222, 10.1111/jgs.12090

Lupse, 2013, Predictors of first recurrence in Clostridium difficile-associated disease. A study of 306 patients hospitalized in a Romanian tertiary referral center, J Gastrointestin Liver Dis, 22, 397

Marincu, 2020, Predictive factors for the first recurrence of clostridioides difficile infection in the elderly from Western Romania, Medicina (Kaunas), 56

McDonald, 2015, Continuous proton pump inhibitor therapy and the associated risk of recurrent Clostridium difficile infection, JAMA Intern Med, 175, 784, 10.1001/jamainternmed.2015.42

McFarland, 1999, Recurrent Clostridium difficile disease: epidemiology and clinical characteristics, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 20, 43, 10.1086/501553

Na'amnih, 2018, Risk factors for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection in a tertiary hospital in Israel, Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis Off Publ Eur Soc Clin Microbiol, 37, 1281, 10.1007/s10096-018-3247-1

Negrut, 2020, Risk factors associated with recurrent clostridioides difficile infection, Healthcare, 8, 12, 10.3390/healthcare8030352

Origüen, 2019, Toxin B PCR amplification cycle threshold adds little to clinical variables for predicting outcomes in Clostridium difficile infection: a retrospective cohort study, J Clin Microbiol, 57, 10.1128/JCM.01125-18

Pepin, 2005, Increasing risk of relapse after treatment of Clostridium difficile colitis in Quebec, Canada, Clin Infect Dis, 40, 1591, 10.1086/430315

Rao, 2018, An observational cohort study of Clostridium difficile ribotype 027 and recurrent infection, mSphere, 3, 10.1128/mSphere.00033-18

Reveles, 2018, Derivation and validation of a Clostridium difficile infection recurrence prediction rule in a national cohort of veterans, Pharmacotherapy, 38, 349, 10.1002/phar.2088

Rodriguez-Pardo, 2013, Epidemiology of Clostridium difficile infection and risk factors for unfavorable clinical outcomes: results of a hospital-based study in Barcelona, Spain, J Clin Microbiol, 51, 1465, 10.1128/JCM.03352-12

Rotramel, 2012, PPI therapy and albumin are better predictors of recurrent Clostridium difficile colitis than choice of antibiotics, J Gastrointest Surg Off J Soc Surg Aliment Tract, 16, 2267, 10.1007/s11605-012-2037-9

van Beurden, 2018, Host factors are more important in predicting recurrent Clostridium difficile infection than ribotype and use of antibiotics, Clin Microbiol Infect, 24, 85 e1, 10.1016/j.cmi.2017.07.025

Viswesh, 2017, Development of a bedside scoring system for predicting a first recurrence of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea, Am J Health Syst Pharm, 74, 474, 10.2146/ajhp160186

Zilberberg, 2014, Risk factors for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) hospitalization among hospitalized patients with an initial CDI episode: a retrospective cohort study, BMC Infect Dis, 14, 306, 10.1186/1471-2334-14-306

Cadena, 2010, Clinical predictors and risk factors for relapsing Clostridium difficile infection, Am J Med Sci, 339, 350, 10.1097/MAJ.0b013e3181d3cdaa

Shakov, 2011, Diabetes mellitus as a risk factor for recurrence of Clostridium difficile infection in the acute care hospital setting, Am J Infect Control, 39, 194, 10.1016/j.ajic.2010.08.017

Ryu, 2012, Risk factors for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection, Intest Res, 10, 176, 10.5217/ir.2012.10.2.176

Golan, 2020, Renal impairment, C. difficile recurrence, and the differential effect of bezlotoxumab: a post hoc analysis of pooled data from 2 randomized clinical trials, Open Forum Infect Dis, 7, ofaa248, 10.1093/ofid/ofaa248

Weiss, 2015, Effects of proton pump inhibitors and histamine-2 receptor antagonists on response to fidaxomicin or vancomycin in patients with Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea, BMJ Open Gastroenterol, 2, 10.1136/bmjgast-2014-000028

Janarthanan, 2012, Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and proton pump inhibitor therapy: a meta-analysis, Am J Gastroenterol, 107, 1001, 10.1038/ajg.2012.179

Martinez, 2012, Clostridium difficile outbreaks: prevention and treatment strategies, Risk Manag Healthc Policy, 5, 55, 10.2147/RMHP.S13053

Olson, 1994, Ten years of prospective Clostridium difficile-associated disease surveillance and treatment at the Minneapolis VA Medical Center, 1982-1991, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 15, 371, 10.2307/30145589

Teasley, 1983, Prospective randomised trial of metronidazole versus vancomycin for Clostridium-difficile-associated diarrhoea and colitis, Lancet, 2, 1043, 10.1016/S0140-6736(83)91036-X

Wenisch, 1996, Comparison of vancomycin, teicoplanin, metronidazole, and fusidic acid for the treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea, Clin Infect Dis, 22, 813, 10.1093/clinids/22.5.813

Zar, 2007, A comparison of vancomycin and metronidazole for the treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea, stratified by disease severity, Clin Infect Dis, 45, 302, 10.1086/519265

Johnson, 2014, Vancomycin, metronidazole, or tolevamer for Clostridium difficile infection: results from two multinational, randomized, controlled trials, Clin Infect Dis, 59, 345, 10.1093/cid/ciu313

Allegretti, 2019, Clinical predictors of recurrence after primary clostridioides difficile infection: a prospective cohort study, Dig Dis Sci

Louie, 2011, Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection, N Engl J Med, 364, 422, 10.1056/NEJMoa0910812

Cornely, 2012, Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for infection with Clostridium difficile in Europe, Canada, and the USA: a double-blind, non-inferiority, randomised controlled trial, Lancet Infect Dis, 12, 281, 10.1016/S1473-3099(11)70374-7

Cornely, 2013, Resolution of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in patients with cancer treated with fidaxomicin or vancomycin, J Clin Oncol Off J Am Soc Clin Oncol, 31, 2493, 10.1200/JCO.2012.45.5899

Housman, 2016, Assessment of Clostridium difficile burden in patients over time with first episode infection following fidaxomicin or vancomycin, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 37, 215, 10.1017/ice.2015.270

Mikamo, 2018, Efficacy and safety of fidaxomicin for the treatment of Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile infection in a randomized, double-blind, comparative Phase III study in Japan, J Infect Chemother, 24, 744, 10.1016/j.jiac.2018.05.010

Louie, 2009, OPT-80 eliminates Clostridium difficile and is sparing of bacteroides species during treatment of C. difficile infection, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 53, 261, 10.1128/AAC.01443-07

Tannock, 2010, A new macrocyclic antibiotic, fidaxomicin (OPT-80), causes less alteration to the bowel microbiota of Clostridium difficile-infected patients than does vancomycin, Microbiology (Reading), 156, 3354, 10.1099/mic.0.042010-0

Stranges, 2013, Cost-Effectiveness analysis evaluating fidaxomicin versus oral vancomycin for the treatment of Clostridium difficile infection in the United States, Value Health, 16, 297, 10.1016/j.jval.2012.11.004

Markovic, 2014, Cost-Effectiveness comparison of fidaxomicin and vancomycin for treatment of Clostridium difficile infection: a markov model based on data from a south West balkan country in socioeconomic transition, Value Health Reg Issue, 4, 87, 10.1016/j.vhri.2014.08.001

Chen, 2021, Cost-effectiveness of bezlotoxumab and fidaxomicin for initial Clostridioides difficile infection, Clin Microbiol Infect, 27, 1448, 10.1016/j.cmi.2021.04.004

Nathwani, 2014, Cost-effectiveness analysis of fidaxomicin versus vancomycin in Clostridium difficile infection, J Antimicrob Chemother, 69, 2901, 10.1093/jac/dku257

Watt, 2016, A cost-effectiveness and budget impact analysis of first-line fidaxomicin for patients with Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) in Germany, Infection, 44, 599, 10.1007/s15010-016-0894-y

Watt, 2017, Cost-effectiveness analysis on the use of fidaxomicin and vancomycin to treat Clostridium difficile infection in France, J Med Econ, 20, 678, 10.1080/13696998.2017.1302946

Cornely, 2018, Extended-pulsed fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection in patients aged >/=60 years (EXTEND): analysis of cost-effectiveness, J Antimicrob Chemother, 73, 2529, 10.1093/jac/dky184

Rubio-Terres, 2019, Extended-pulsed fidaxomicin versus vancomycin in patients 60 years and older with Clostridium difficile infection: cost-effectiveness analysis in Spain, Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis Off Publ Eur Soc Clin Microbiol, 38, 1105, 10.1007/s10096-019-03503-4

Fekety, 1989, Treatment of antibiotic-associated Clostridium difficile colitis with oral vancomycin: comparison of two dosage regimens, Am J Med, 86, 15, 10.1016/0002-9343(89)90223-4

Gonzales, 2010, Faecal pharmacokinetics of orally administered vancomycin in patients with suspected Clostridium difficile infection, BMC Infect Dis, 10, 363, 10.1186/1471-2334-10-363

Cimolai, 2020, Does oral vancomycin use necessitate therapeutic drug monitoring?, Infection, 48, 173, 10.1007/s15010-019-01374-7

Guery, 2018, Extended-pulsed fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection in patients 60 years and older (EXTEND): a randomised, controlled, open-label, phase 3b/4 trial, Lancet Infect Dis, 18, 296, 10.1016/S1473-3099(17)30751-X

Wilcox, 2017, Bezlotoxumab for prevention of recurrent Clostridium difficile infection, N Engl J Med, 376, 305, 10.1056/NEJMoa1602615

Gerding, 2018, Bezlotoxumab for prevention of recurrent Clostridium difficile infection in patients at increased risk for recurrence, Clin Infect Dis, 67, 649, 10.1093/cid/ciy171

Merck Sharp & Dome Corp. [Available from: https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2016/761046s000lbl.pdf.

Prabhu, 2018, Cost-effectiveness of bezlotoxumab compared with placebo for the prevention of recurrent Clostridium difficile infection, Clin Infect Dis, 66, 355, 10.1093/cid/cix809

Salavert, 2018, Cost-Effectiveness analysis of bezlotoxumab added to standard of care versus standard of care alone for the prevention of recurrent Clostridium difficile infection in high-risk patients in Spain, Adv Ther, 35, 1920, 10.1007/s12325-018-0813-y

Vickers, 2017, Efficacy and safety of ridinilazole compared with vancomycin for the treatment of Clostridium difficile infection: a phase 2, randomised, double-blind, active-controlled, non-inferiority study, Lancet Infect Dis, 17, 735, 10.1016/S1473-3099(17)30235-9

2016

Gerding, 2019, Cadazolid for the treatment of Clostridium difficile infection: results of two double-blind, placebo-controlled, non-inferiority, randomised phase 3 trials, Lancet Infect Dis, 19, 265, 10.1016/S1473-3099(18)30614-5

Boix, 2017, Primary outcomes from a phase 3, randomized, double-blind, active-controlled trial of surotomycin in subjects with Clostridium difficile infection, Open Forum Infect Dis, 4, ofw275, 10.1093/ofid/ofw275

Mullane, 2015, Multicenter, randomized clinical trial to compare the safety and efficacy of LFF571 and vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infections, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 59, 1435, 10.1128/AAC.04251-14

Vehreschild, 2018, Fidaxomicin for the treatment of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) in at-risk patients with inflammatory bowel disease, fulminant CDI, renal impairment or hepatic impairment: a retrospective study of routine clinical use (ANEMONE), Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis Off Publ Eur Soc Clin Microbiol, 37, 2097, 10.1007/s10096-018-3344-1

Gentry, 2019, Fidaxomicin versus oral vancomycin for severe Clostridium difficile infection: a retrospective cohort study, Clin Microbiol Infect, 25, 987, 10.1016/j.cmi.2018.12.007

Penziner, 2015, Fidaxomicin therapy in critically ill patients with Clostridium difficile infection, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 59, 1776, 10.1128/AAC.04268-14

Pichenot, 2017, Fidaxomicin for treatment of Clostridium difficile infection in clinical practice: a prospective cohort study in a French University Hospital, Infection, 45, 425, 10.1007/s15010-017-0981-8

Wang, 2020, Does addition of intravenous metronidazole to oral vancomycin improve outcomes in clostridioides difficile infection?, Clin Infect Dis, 71, 2414

Wenisch, 2012, Prospective observational study comparing three different treatment regimes in patients with Clostridium difficile infection, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 56, 1974, 10.1128/AAC.05647-11

Vega, 2020, Evaluation of addition of intravenous metronidazole to oral vancomycin therapy in critically ill patients with non-fulminant severe clostridioides difficile infection, Pharmacotherapy, 40, 398, 10.1002/phar.2393

Rokas, 2015, The addition of intravenous metronidazole to oral vancomycin is associated with improved mortality in critically ill patients with Clostridium difficile infection, Clin Infect Dis, 61, 934, 10.1093/cid/civ409

Gergely Szabo, 2016, Use of intravenous tigecycline in patients with severe Clostridium difficile infection: a retrospective observational cohort study, Clin Microbiol Infect, 22, 990, 10.1016/j.cmi.2016.08.017

Manea, 2018, The role of tigecycline in the management of Clostridium difficile infection: a retrospective cohort study, Clin Microbiol Infect, 24, 180, 10.1016/j.cmi.2017.06.005

Kechagias, 2020, Tigecycline for the treatment of patients with Clostridium difficile infection: an update of the clinical evidence, Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis Off Publ Eur Soc Clin Microbiol, 39, 1053, 10.1007/s10096-019-03756-z

Stewart, 2013, Is colectomy for fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis life saving? A systematic review, Colorectal Dis Off J Assoc Coloproctol Great Britain Ireland, 15, 798, 10.1111/codi.12134

Neal, 2011, Diverting loop ileostomy and colonic lavage: an alternative to total abdominal colectomy for the treatment of severe, complicated Clostridium difficile associated disease, Ann Surg, 254, 423, 10.1097/SLA.0b013e31822ade48

Ferrada, 2017, Loop ileostomy versus total colectomy as surgical treatment for Clostridium difficile-associated disease: an Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma multicenter trial, J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 83, 36, 10.1097/TA.0000000000001498

Hall, 2019, No survival advantage exists for patients undergoing loop ileostomy for clostridium difficile colitis, Am J Surg, 217, 34, 10.1016/j.amjsurg.2018.09.023

Juo, 2019, Trends in diverting loop ileostomy vs total abdominal colectomy as surgical management for Clostridium difficile colitis, JAMA Surg, 10.1001/jamasurg.2019.2141

Akamine, 2016, The efficacy of intracolonic vancomycin for severe Clostridium difficile colitis: a case series, BMC Infect Dis, 16, 316, 10.1186/s12879-016-1657-1

Freeman, 2015, Pan-European longitudinal surveillance of antibiotic resistance among prevalent Clostridium difficile ribotypes, Clin Microbiol Infect, 21, 248 e9, 10.1016/j.cmi.2014.09.017

Terveer, 2020, Faecal microbiota transplantation for Clostridioides difficile infection: four years' experience of The Netherlands Donor Feces Bank, United Eur Gastroenterol J, 8, 1236, 10.1177/2050640620957765

Fischer, 2017, Fecal microbiota transplant in severe and severe-complicated Clostridium difficile: a promising treatment approach, Gut Microbe, 8, 289, 10.1080/19490976.2016.1273998

Ianiro, 2018, Randomised clinical trial: faecal microbiota transplantation by colonoscopy plus vancomycin for the treatment of severe refractory Clostridium difficile infection-single versus multiple infusions, Aliment Pharmacol Ther, 48, 152, 10.1111/apt.14816

Rupawala, 2021, Management of severe and severe/complicated clostridoides difficile infection using sequential fecal microbiota transplant by retention enema, Clin Infect Dis, 73, 10.1093/cid/ciab041

Cornely, 2012, Treatment of first recurrence of Clostridium difficile infection: fidaxomicin versus vancomycin, Clin Infect Dis, 55, S154, 10.1093/cid/cis462

Spiceland, 2018, Outcomes with fidaxomicin therapy in Clostridium difficile infection, J Clin Gastroenterol, 52, 151, 10.1097/MCG.0000000000000769

McFarland, 2002, Breaking the cycle: treatment strategies for 163 cases of recurrent Clostridium difficile disease, Am J Gastroenterol, 97, 1769, 10.1111/j.1572-0241.2002.05839.x

Hota, 2017, Oral vancomycin followed by fecal transplantation versus tapering oral vancomycin treatment for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection: an open-label, randomized controlled trial, Clin Infect Dis, 64, 265, 10.1093/cid/ciw731

Major, 2019, Follow-on Rifaximin for the Prevention of recurrence following standard treatment of Infection with Clostridium Difficile (RAPID): a randomised placebo controlled trial, Gut, 68, 1224, 10.1136/gutjnl-2018-316794

Freeman, 2020, Five-year Pan-European, longitudinal surveillance of Clostridium difficile ribotype prevalence and antimicrobial resistance: the extended ClosER study, Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis Off Publ Eur Soc Clin Microbiol, 39, 169, 10.1007/s10096-019-03708-7

Hvas, 2019, Fecal microbiota transplantation is superior to fidaxomicin for treatment of recurrent Clostridium difficile infection, Gastroenterology, 156, 1324, 10.1053/j.gastro.2018.12.019

Oksi, 2019, Real-world efficacy of bezlotoxumab for prevention of recurrent Clostridium difficile infection: a retrospective study of 46 patients in five university hospitals in Finland, Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis Off Publ Eur Soc Clin Microbiol, 38, 1947, 10.1007/s10096-019-03630-y

Escudero-Sánchez, 2020, Real-World experience with bezlotoxumab for prevention of recurrence of clostridioides difficile infection, J Clin Med, 10, 10.3390/jcm10010002

Hengel, 2020, Real-world experience of bezlotoxumab for prevention of clostridioides difficile infection: a retrospective multicenter cohort study, Open Forum Infect Dis, 7, ofaa097, 10.1093/ofid/ofaa097

Cammarota, 2015, Randomised clinical trial: faecal microbiota transplantation by colonoscopy vs. vancomycin for the treatment of recurrent Clostridium difficile infection, Aliment Pharmacol Ther, 41, 835, 10.1111/apt.13144

Kelly, 2016, Effect of fecal microbiota transplantation on recurrence in multiply recurrent Clostridium difficile infection: a randomized trial, Ann Intern Med, 165, 609, 10.7326/M16-0271

van Nood, 2013, Duodenal infusion of donor feces for recurrent Clostridium difficile, N Engl J Med, 368, 407, 10.1056/NEJMoa1205037

Jiang, 2017, Randomised clinical trial: faecal microbiota transplantation for recurrent Clostridum difficile infection - fresh, or frozen, or lyophilised microbiota from a small pool of healthy donors delivered by colonoscopy, Aliment Pharmacol Ther, 45, 899, 10.1111/apt.13969

Jiang, 2018, Safety and preliminary efficacy of orally administered lyophilized fecal microbiota product compared with frozen product given by enema for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection: a randomized clinical trial, PLoS One, 13, 10.1371/journal.pone.0205064

Kao, 2017, Effect of oral capsule- vs colonoscopy-delivered fecal microbiota transplantation on recurrent Clostridium difficile infection: a randomized clinical trial, JAMA, 318, 1985, 10.1001/jama.2017.17077

Youngster, 2014, Fecal microbiota transplant for relapsing Clostridium difficile infection using a frozen inoculum from unrelated donors: a randomized, open-label, controlled pilot study, Clin Infect Dis, 58, 1515, 10.1093/cid/ciu135

Lee, 2016, Frozen vs fresh fecal microbiota transplantation and clinical resolution of diarrhea in patients with recurrent Clostridium difficile infection: a randomized clinical trial, JAMA, 315, 142, 10.1001/jama.2015.18098

Kelly, 2021, Fecal microbiota transplantation is highly effective in real-world practice: initial results from the FMT national registry, Gastroenterology, 160, 183, 10.1053/j.gastro.2020.09.038

Keller, 2020, A standardised model for stool banking for faecal microbiota transplantation: a consensus report from a multidisciplinary UEG working group, United Eur Gastroenterol J

Ianiro, 2020, Reorganisation of faecal microbiota transplant services during the COVID-19 pandemic, Gut, 69, 1555, 10.1136/gutjnl-2020-321829

Vendrik, 2020, Periodic screening of donor faeces with a quarantine period to prevent transmission of multidrug-resistant organisms during faecal microbiota transplantation: a retrospective cohort study, Lancet Infect Dis

Terveer, 2017, How to: establish and run a stool bank, Clin Microbiol Infect, 23, 924, 10.1016/j.cmi.2017.05.015

Zellmer, 2020, Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli transmission via fecal microbiota transplant, Clin Infect Dis

DeFilipp, 2019, Drug-Resistant E. coli bacteremia transmitted by fecal microbiota transplant, N Engl J Med, 381, 2043, 10.1056/NEJMoa1910437

Drewes, 2019, Transmission and clearance of potential procarcinogenic bacteria during fecal microbiota transplantation for recurrent Clostridioides difficile, JCI Insight, 4, 10.1172/jci.insight.130848

Terveer, 2019, Human transmission of Blastocystis by Fecal Microbiota Transplantation without development of gastrointestinal symptoms in recipients, Clin Infect Dis

Allegretti, 2020, Inflammatory bowel disease outcomes following fecal microbiota transplantation for recurrent C. difficile infection, Inflamm Bowel Dis

Terveer, 2020, Faecal microbiota transplantation for Clostridioides difficile infection: four years' experience of The Netherlands Donor Feces Bank, United Eur Gastroenterol J, 10.1177/2050640620957765

Garey, 2008, Meta-analysis to assess risk factors for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection, J Hosp Infect, 70, 298, 10.1016/j.jhin.2008.08.012

Tariq, 2017, Association of gastric acid suppression with recurrent Clostridium difficile infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis, JAMA Intern Med, 177, 784, 10.1001/jamainternmed.2017.0212

Mehta, 2020, Acid suppression medications during hospitalization as a risk factor for recurrence of Clostridioides difficile infection: systematic review and meta-analysis, Clin Infect Dis

D'Silva, 2021, Proton pump inhibitor use and risk for recurrent Clostridioides difficile infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Clin Microbiol Infect, 10.1016/j.cmi.2021.01.008

Crook, 2012, Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection: meta-analysis of pivotal randomized controlled trials, Clin Infect Dis, 55, S93, 10.1093/cid/cis499

Thibault, 1991, Risk factors for the development of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea during a hospital outbreak, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 12, 345, 10.1086/646354

Johnson, 1999, Epidemics of diarrhea caused by a clindamycin-resistant strain of Clostridium difficile in four hospitals, N Engl J Med, 341, 1645, 10.1056/NEJM199911253412203

Loo, 2005, A predominantly clonal multi-institutional outbreak of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea with high morbidity and mortality, N Engl J Med, 353, 2442, 10.1056/NEJMoa051639

Muto, 2005, A large outbreak of Clostridium difficile-associated disease with an unexpected proportion of deaths and colectomies at a teaching hospital following increased fluoroquinolone use, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 26, 273, 10.1086/502539

Pepin, 2005, Emergence of fluoroquinolones as the predominant risk factor for Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea: a cohort study during an epidemic in Quebec, Clin Infect Dis, 41, 1254, 10.1086/496986

Hensgens, 2012, Time interval of increased risk for Clostridium difficile infection after exposure to antibiotics, J Antimicrob Chemother, 67, 742, 10.1093/jac/dkr508

Goldenberg, 2017, Probiotics for the prevention of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in adults and children, Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 12

Wombwell, 2021, The effect of Saccharomyces boulardii primary prevention on risk of Hospital Onset Clostridioides difficile infection in hospitalized patients administered antibiotics frequently associated with Clostridioides difficile infection, Clin Infect Dis, 73, e2512, 10.1093/cid/ciaa808

Allen, 2013, Lactobacilli and bifidobacteria in the prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea and Clostridium difficile diarrhoea in older inpatients (PLACIDE): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre trial, Lancet, 382, 1249, 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61218-0

Suez, 2018, Post-Antibiotic gut mucosal microbiome reconstitution is impaired by probiotics and improved by autologous FMT, Cell, 174, 1406, 10.1016/j.cell.2018.08.047

Besselink, 2008, Probiotic prophylaxis in predicted severe acute pancreatitis: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, Lancet, 371, 651, 10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60207-X

Carignan, 2016, Efficacy of secondary prophylaxis with vancomycin for preventing recurrent Clostridium difficile infections, Am J Gastroenterol, 111, 1834, 10.1038/ajg.2016.417

Van Hise, 2016, Efficacy of oral vancomycin in preventing recurrent Clostridium difficile infection in patients treated with systemic antimicrobial agents, Clin Infect Dis, 63, 651, 10.1093/cid/ciw401

Bajrovic, 2019, Vancomycin prophylaxis for Clostridium difficile infection among lung transplant recipients, J Heart Lung Transplant, 38, 874, 10.1016/j.healun.2019.05.011

Caroff, 2019, Oral vancomycin prophylaxis during systemic antibiotic exposure to prevent Clostridiodes difficile infection relapses, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 40, 662, 10.1017/ice.2019.88

Ganetsky, 2019, Oral vancomycin prophylaxis is highly effective in preventing Clostridium difficile infection in allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplant recipients, Clin Infect Dis, 68, 2003, 10.1093/cid/ciy822

Knight, 2019, Long-term efficacy of oral vancomycin prophylaxis for the prevention of Clostridium difficile recurrence, J Pharm Pract

Morrisette, 2019, Oral vancomycin prophylaxis as secondary prevention against clostridioides difficile infection in the hematopoietic stem cell transplantation and hematologic malignancy population, Biol Blood Marrow Transplant, 25, 2091, 10.1016/j.bbmt.2019.06.021

Johnson, 2020, Effectiveness of oral vancomycin for prevention of healthcare facility-onset clostridioides difficile infection in targeted patients during systemic antibiotic exposure, Clin Infect Dis, 71, 1133, 10.1093/cid/ciz966

Mullane, 2019, A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of fidaxomicin for prophylaxis of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in adults undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, Clin Infect Dis, 68, 196, 10.1093/cid/ciy484

Nerandzic, 2012, Reduced acquisition and overgrowth of vancomycin-resistant enterococci and Candida species in patients treated with fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection, Clin Infect Dis, 55, S121, 10.1093/cid/cis440

Warren, 2013, Vancomycin treatment's association with delayed intestinal tissue injury, clostridial overgrowth, and recurrence of Clostridium difficile infection in mice, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 57, 689, 10.1128/AAC.00877-12

Knight, 2020, Long-Term efficacy of oral vancomycin prophylaxis for the prevention of Clostridium difficile recurrence, J Pharm Pract, 33, 633, 10.1177/0897190019825994

Zacharioudakis, 2020, Oral vancomycin prophylaxis against recurrent Clostridioides difficile infection: efficacy and side effects in two hospitals, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 41, 908, 10.1017/ice.2020.176

Kokai-Kun, 2019, Use of ribaxamase (SYN-004), a beta-lactamase, to prevent Clostridium difficile infection in beta-lactam-treated patients: a double-blind, phase 2b, randomised placebo-controlled trial, Lancet Infect Dis, 19, 487, 10.1016/S1473-3099(18)30731-X

de Bruyn, 2021, Safety, immunogenicity, and efficacy of a Clostridioides difficile toxoid vaccine candidate: a phase 3 multicentre, observer-blind, randomised, controlled trial, Lancet Infect Dis, 21, 252, 10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30331-5

Optimer Pharmaceuticals Inc. [Available from: https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2011/201699s000lbl.pdf.

ViroPharma Incorporated. [Available from: https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2011/050606s028lbl.pdf.

Pfizer Inc. [Available from: https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2010/012623s061lbl.pdf.

Ani Pharmaceuticals Inc. [Available from: https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2017/060180s047lbl.pdf.

Xellia Pharmaceuticals. [Available from: https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2019/211962s000lbl.pdf.

Mylan Laboratories Limited. [Available from: https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2018/209481s000lbl.pdf.

Shue, 2008, Safety, tolerance, and pharmacokinetic studies of OPT-80 in healthy volunteers following single and multiple oral doses, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 52, 1391, 10.1128/AAC.01045-07

Ford, 2018, Cost-effectiveness analysis of initial treatment strategies for mild-to-moderate Clostridium difficile infection in hospitalized patients, Am J Health Syst Pharm, 75, 1110, 10.2146/ajhp170554

Varier, 2015, Cost-Effectiveness analysis of fecal microbiota transplantation for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 36, 438, 10.1017/ice.2014.80

Lapointe-Shaw, 2016, Cost-Effectiveness analysis of six strategies to treat recurrent Clostridium difficile infection, PLoS One, 11, 18, 10.1371/journal.pone.0149521

Baro, 2017, Cost-effectiveness analysis of five competing strategies for the management of multiple recurrent community-onset Clostridium difficile infection in France, PLoS One, 12, 10.1371/journal.pone.0170258

Pettit, 2015, Risk factors for systemic vancomycin exposure following administration of oral vancomycin for the treatment of Clostridium difficile infection, Pharmacotherapy, 35, 119, 10.1002/phar.1538

van Rossen, 2021, Prognostic factors for severe and recurrent Clostridioides difficile infection: a systematic review, Clin Microbiol Infect, 10.1016/j.cmi.2021.09.026