Estimating the GDP effect of Open Source Software and its complementarities with R&D and patents: evidence and policy implications

Blind, Knut1,2, Schubert, Torben1,3
1Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research (ISI), Karlsruhe, Germany
2TU Berlin, Berlin, Germany
3Department of Design Sciences, CIRCLE - Centre for Innovation Research, Lund University, Lund, Sweden

Tóm tắt

Open Source Software (OSS) has become an increasingly important knowledge asset in modern economies. However, the economic impact of OSS on countries’ GDP is ambivalent due to its public good character. Using a cross-country panel from 2000 to 2018, including 25 of the largest EU countries plus the USA, Japan, Korea, Canada, China, Norway, and Switzerland, matching OSS commits to GitHub to macroeconomic data provided by the OECD, our results confirm the dual nature of OSS. On the one hand, the open-access character creates great learning potential by providing a commonly accessible productive resource for all countries. On the other hand, it creates outward-directed spillovers associated with own OSS contributions. Accordingly, on average, we find that countries experience an increase in GDP when the world stock of OSS grows. However, smaller countries experience a decline in GDP resulting from their own contributions due to knowledge spillovers. The net effect is nonetheless positive. If no country contributed to OSS development, GDP for the average country would be 2.2% lower in the long run. Moreover, the losses associated with unintended spillovers are lower for countries with a higher R&D and patenting intensity. Based on our findings, we derive implications for policies and regulations concerning OSS.

Tài liệu tham khảo

Aghion, P., & Howitt, P. (1992). A model of growth through creative destruction. Econometrica, 60(2), 323–351. https://doi.org/10.2307/2951599 Ahuja, G., Lambert, M., & Novelli, C. E. (2013). The second face of appropriability: generative appropriability and its determinants. Academy of Management Review, 38(2), 248–269. Akçomak, İ. S., Ter Weel, B. (2009). Social capital, innovation and growth: Evidence from Europe. European Economic Review, 53(5), 544–567. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.euro corev.2008.10.001 citation_journal_title=Industry and Innovation; citation_title=The impact of open source software commercialization on firm value; citation_author=D Aksoy-Yurdagul; citation_volume=22; citation_issue=1; citation_publication_date=2015; citation_pages=1-17; citation_doi=10.1080/13662716.2015.1014163; citation_id=CR4 citation_journal_title=Academy of Management Review; citation_title=Cui Bono? The selective revealing of knowledge and its implications for innovative activity; citation_author=O Alexy, G George, A Salter; citation_volume=38; citation_issue=2; citation_publication_date=2013; citation_pages=270-291; citation_doi=10.5465/amr.2011.0193; citation_id=CR5 Amiri-Kordestani, M., & Bourdoucen, H. (2017). A survey on embedded open source system software for the internet of things. In Free and Open Source Software Conference (Vol. 2017). citation_journal_title=American Economic Review; citation_title=Knowledge spillovers and corporate investment in scientific research; citation_author=A Arora, S Belenzon, L Sheer; citation_volume=111; citation_issue=3; citation_publication_date=2021; citation_pages=871-898; citation_doi=10.1257/aer.20171742; citation_id=CR8 citation_journal_title=Review of Economic Studies; citation_title=The economic implications of learning by doing; citation_author=KJ Arrow; citation_volume=29; citation_issue=3; citation_publication_date=1962; citation_pages=155-173; citation_doi=10.2307/2295952; citation_id=CR9 citation_journal_title=Review of Economics; citation_title=Aggregate capital stock estimations for 122 countries: An update; citation_author=M Berlemann, JE Wesselhöft; citation_volume=68; citation_issue=2; citation_publication_date=2017; citation_pages=75-92; citation_doi=10.1515/roe-2017-0004; citation_id=CR11 citation_journal_title=Journal of Economics & Management Strategy; citation_title=An empirical look at software patents; citation_author=J Bessen, RM Hunt; citation_volume=16; citation_issue=1; citation_publication_date=2007; citation_pages=157-189; citation_doi=10.1111/j.1530-9134.2007.00136.x; citation_id=CR12 BITKOM (2020). Open Source Monitor 2019, https://www.bitkom.org/opensourcemonitor 2019 BITKOM (2021). Open Source Monitor 2021, https://www.bitkom.org/opensourcemonitor 2019 citation_journal_title=Journal of Comparative Economics; citation_title=Intrinsic motivation in open source software development; citation_author=J Bitzer, W Schrettl, PJ Schröder; citation_volume=35; citation_issue=1; citation_publication_date=2007; citation_pages=160-169; citation_doi=10.1016/j.jce.2006.10.001; citation_id=CR15 Black Duck Software (2016). The Tenth Annual Future of Open Source Survey. Accessed February 6, 2022, https://www.slideshare.net/blackducksoftware/2016-future-of-open-source-survey-results . Blind, K., Edler, J., & Friedewald, M. (2005). Software Patents: Economic Impacts and Policy Implications. New Horizons in Intellectual Property Series); Edward Elgar. citation_journal_title=Journal of Productivity Analysis; citation_title=The impact of patents and standards on macroeconomic growth: a panel approach covering four countries and 12 sectors; citation_author=K Blind, A Jungmittag; citation_volume=29; citation_issue=1; citation_publication_date=2008; citation_pages=51-60; citation_doi=10.1007/s11123-007-0060-8; citation_id=CR18 Blind, K., & Böhm, M. (2019). The Relationship Between Open Source Software and Standard Setting; https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/science-update/relationship-between-open-source . Blind, K., Böhm, M., Grzegorzewska, P., Katz, A., Muto, S., Pätsch, S., & Schubert, T. (2021a). The impact of Open Source Software and Hardware on technological independence, competitiveness and innovation in the EU economy, Final Study Report. Brussels.   https://doi.org/10.2759/430161 citation_journal_title=Journal of Technology Transfer; citation_title=The influence of standards and patents on long-term economic growth; citation_author=K Blind, F Ramel, C Rochell; citation_publication_date=2021; citation_doi=10.1007/s10961-021-09864-3; citation_id=CR21 citation_journal_title=Research Policy; citation_title=Why open source software can succeed; citation_author=A Bonaccorsi, C Rossi; citation_volume=32; citation_issue=7; citation_publication_date=2003; citation_pages=1243-1258; citation_doi=10.1016/S0048-7333(03)00051-9; citation_id=CR22 citation_journal_title=The Economic Journal; citation_title=The international dynamics of R&D and innovation in the long run and in the short run; citation_author=L Bottazzi, G Peri; citation_volume=117; citation_issue=518; citation_publication_date=2007; citation_pages=486-511; citation_doi=10.1111/j.1468-0297.2007.02027.x; citation_id=CR24 citation_journal_title=Journal of Economic Surveys; citation_title=Evolutionary and new growth theories. Are they converging?; citation_author=F Castellacci; citation_volume=21; citation_issue=3; citation_publication_date=2007; citation_pages=585-627; citation_doi=10.1111/j.1467-6419.2007.00515.x; citation_id=CR25 citation_journal_title=Administrative Science Quarterly; citation_title=Absorptive capacity: A new perspective on learning and innovation; citation_author=WM Cohen, DA Levinthal; citation_volume=35; citation_issue=1; citation_publication_date=1990; citation_pages=128-152; citation_doi=10.2307/2393553; citation_id=CR26 citation_journal_title=Review of Income and Wealth; citation_title=Intangible capital and US economic growth; citation_author=C Corrado, C Hulten, D Sichel; citation_volume=55; citation_publication_date=2009; citation_pages=661-685; citation_doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2009.00343.x; citation_id=CR27 citation_journal_title=Economic Record; citation_title=Patents, innovation and growth; citation_author=M Crosby; citation_volume=76; citation_issue=234; citation_publication_date=2000; citation_pages=255-262; citation_doi=10.1111/j.1475-4932.2000.tb00021.x; citation_id=CR28 citation_journal_title=Research Policy; citation_title=Is public R&D a complement or substitute for private R&D? A review of the econometric evidence; citation_author=PA David, BH Hall, AA Toole; citation_volume=29; citation_issue=4–5; citation_publication_date=2000; citation_pages=497-529; citation_doi=10.1016/S0048-7333(99)00087-6; citation_id=CR29 citation_journal_title=Industrial and Corporate Change; citation_title=A model of corporate donations to open source under hardware–software complementarity; citation_author=L Gaetano; citation_volume=24; citation_issue=1; citation_publication_date=2015; citation_pages=163-190; citation_doi=10.1093/icc/dtu010; citation_id=CR31 citation_journal_title=Research Policy; citation_title=Proprietary versus public domain licensing of software and research products; citation_author=A Gambardella, BH Hall; citation_volume=35; citation_issue=6; citation_publication_date=2006; citation_pages=875-892; citation_doi=10.1016/j.respol.2006.04.004; citation_id=CR33 citation_title=Economic impact of open source software on innovation and the competitiveness of the information and Communication Technologies (ICT) sector in the EU; citation_publication_date=2006; citation_id=CR35; citation_author=RA Ghosh; citation_publisher=UNU-MERIT citation_title=The role of intellectual property rights in economic growth. Dynamics of globalization and development; citation_publication_date=1997; citation_id=CR36; citation_author=DM Gould; citation_author=WC Gruben; citation_publisher=Springer citation_journal_title=Journal of Economic Perspectives; citation_title=Endogenous innovation in the theory of growth; citation_author=GM Grossman, E Helpman; citation_volume=8; citation_issue=1; citation_publication_date=1994; citation_pages=23-44; citation_doi=10.1257/jep.8.1.23; citation_id=CR37 citation_journal_title=Research Policy; citation_title=The private value of software patents; citation_author=BH Hall, M MacGarvie; citation_volume=39; citation_issue=7; citation_publication_date=2010; citation_pages=994-1009; citation_doi=10.1016/j.respol.2010.04.007; citation_id=CR38 citation_journal_title=Research Policy; citation_title=The innovation–economic growth nexus: Global evidence; citation_author=I Hasan, CL Tucci; citation_volume=39; citation_issue=10; citation_publication_date=2010; citation_pages=1264-1276; citation_doi=10.1016/j.respol.2010.07.005; citation_id=CR39 citation_journal_title=Netnomics; citation_title=The economics of open source software for a competitive firm - Why give it away for free?; citation_author=RE Hawkins; citation_volume=6; citation_publication_date=2004; citation_pages=103-117; citation_doi=10.1007/s11066-004-2717-z; citation_id=CR40 citation_journal_title=Journal of Policy Modelling; citation_title=The economic benefits of the EU single market in goods and services; citation_author=J in’t Veld; citation_volume=41; citation_issue=5; citation_publication_date=2019; citation_pages=803-818; citation_doi=10.1016/j.jpolmod.2019.06.004; citation_id=CR42 International Organization for Standardization (2021). Standards & economic growth: ISO members’ research on the impact of standards on their national economies, Geneva. Iwaisako, T., & Futagami, K. (2003). Patent policy in an endogenous growth model. Journal of Economics, 78(3), 239–258. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41795028 . citation_journal_title=Journal of Economics & Management Strategy; citation_title=Open Source Software: private provision of a public good; citation_author=J Johnson; citation_volume=11; citation_publication_date=2002; citation_pages=637-662; citation_doi=10.1162/105864002320757280; citation_id=CR44 citation_journal_title=Zeitschrift für Wirtschafts-und Sozialwissenschaften; citation_title=Innovation, standardisation and the long-term production function: A cointegraton analysis for Germany 1960–1996; citation_author=A Jungmittag, K Blind, H Grupp; citation_volume=119; citation_publication_date=1999; citation_pages=205-222; citation_id=CR45 citation_journal_title=Ecological Economics; citation_title=The production and allocation of information as a good that is enhanced with increased use; citation_author=I Kubiszewski, J Farley, R Costanza; citation_volume=69; citation_issue=6; citation_publication_date=2010; citation_pages=1344-1354; citation_doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2010.02.002; citation_id=CR47 citation_journal_title=Economics Letters; citation_title=Patents and productivity growth at the industry level: a first look; citation_author=S Lach; citation_volume=49; citation_issue=1; citation_publication_date=1995; citation_pages=101-108; citation_doi=10.1016/0165-1765(94)00618-C; citation_id=CR48 citation_journal_title=Research Policy; citation_title=How open source software works: “Free” user-to-user assistance; citation_author=KR Lakhani, E Hippel; citation_volume=32; citation_issue=6; citation_publication_date=2003; citation_pages=923-943; citation_doi=10.1016/S0048-7333(02)00095-1; citation_id=CR49 citation_journal_title=Technological Forecasting and Social Change; citation_title=Crossnational analysis of the relation of eGovernment maturity and OSS growth; citation_author=S Lakka, T Stamati, C Michalakelis, D Anagnostopoulos; citation_volume=99; citation_publication_date=2015; citation_pages=132-147; citation_doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2015.06.024; citation_id=CR50 Launchpad (2016). People and teams in Launchpad. Retrieved August 27, 2016, from https://launchpad.net/people Lerner, J., & Schankerman, M. (2010). The comingled code: Open source and economic development. MIT Press Books. citation_journal_title=Journal of Industrial Economics; citation_title=Some simple economics of Open-Source; citation_author=J Lerner, J Tirole; citation_volume=50; citation_publication_date=2002; citation_pages=197-234; citation_doi=10.1111/1467-6451.00174; citation_id=CR54 citation_journal_title=Journal of Economic Perspectives; citation_title=The Economics of Technology sharing: open source and Beyond; citation_author=J Lerner, J Tirole; citation_volume=19; citation_issue=2; citation_publication_date=2005; citation_pages=99-120; citation_doi=10.1257/0895330054048678; citation_id=CR55 Michel, P., & Nyssen, J. (2000). On knowledge diffusion, patents lifetime and innovation based endogenous growth. In D. Encaoua, B. H. Hall, F. Laisney, & J. Mairesse (Eds.), The economics and econometrics, pp. 55–81. Springer US, Boston, MA. Mockus, A. (2007). Large-scale code reuse in open source software. In First International Workshop on Emerging Trends in FLOSS Research and Development (FLOSS’07: ICSE Workshops 2007), 7–7. IEEE. citation_journal_title=Organization Science; citation_title=Learning by contributing: gaining competitive advantage through contribution to crowdsourced public goods; citation_author=F Nagle; citation_volume=29; citation_issue=4; citation_publication_date=2018; citation_pages=569-587; citation_doi=10.1287/orsc.2018.1202; citation_id=CR59 Nagle, F. (2019a). Government technology policy, social value, and national competitiveness (March 3, 2019). Harvard Business School Strategy Unit Working Paper No. 19–103. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3355486 citation_journal_title=Management Science; citation_title=Open source software and firm productivity; citation_author=F Nagle; citation_volume=65; citation_issue=3; citation_publication_date=2019; citation_pages=1191-1215; citation_doi=10.1287/mnsc.2017.2977; citation_id=CR61 Nagle, F. (2021). The Problem of Social Benefit. Stanford Social Innovation Review. Nagle, F., Wheeler, D. A., Lifshitz-Assaf, H., Ham, H., & Hoffman, J. L. (2020). Report on the 2020 FOSS Contributor Survey. The Linux Foundation & The Laboratory for Innovation Science at Harvard. citation_journal_title=The Journal of Development Studies; citation_title=The digital knowledge economy index: Mapping content production; citation_author=S Ojanperä, M Graham, M Zook; citation_volume=55; citation_issue=12; citation_publication_date=2019; citation_pages=2626-2643; citation_doi=10.1080/00220388.2018.1554208; citation_id=CR65 citation_journal_title=Communications of the ACM; citation_title=Lessons from open-source software development; citation_author=T O’Reilly; citation_volume=42; citation_issue=4; citation_publication_date=1999; citation_pages=32-37; citation_doi=10.1145/299157.299164; citation_id=CR66 Reisinger, M., Ressner, L., Schmidtke, R., & Thomes, T. P. (2014). Crowding-in of complementary contributions to public goods: Firm investment into open source software. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 106, 78–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2014.06.005 . citation_journal_title=Computer; citation_title=The economic motivation of open source software: Stakeholder perspectives; citation_author=D Riehle; citation_volume=40; citation_issue=4; citation_publication_date=2007; citation_pages=25-32; citation_doi=10.1109/MC.2007.147; citation_id=CR69 Robbins, C. A., Korkmaz, G., Bayoán Santiago Calderón, J., Chen, D., Kelling, C., Shipp, S., & Keller, S. (2018). : Open Source Software as Intangible Capital: Measuring the Cost and Impact of Free Digital Tools. In a paper from 6th IMF Statistical Forum on Measuring Economic Welfare in the Digital Age: What and How, 19–20. citation_journal_title=Journal of Political Economy; citation_title=Endogenous technological change; citation_author=PM Romer; citation_volume=98; citation_issue=5; citation_publication_date=1990; citation_pages=71-102; citation_doi=10.1086/261725; citation_id=CR71 Schubert, T., & Neuhäusler, P. (2018). Can depleting technological opportunities explain the stagnation of productivity? Panel data evidence for 11 OECD countries, Studien zum deutschen Innovations system, No. 11-2018, Expertenkommission Forschung und Innovation (EFI), Berlin citation_journal_title=The Quarterly Journal of Economics; citation_title=A contribution to the theory of economic growth; citation_author=RM Solow; citation_volume=70; citation_issue=1; citation_publication_date=1956; citation_pages=65-94; citation_doi=10.2307/1884513; citation_id=CR72 SourceForge (2016). About [Page describing the platform]. Retrieved August 27, 2016, from https://sourceforge.net/about citation_title=The economics of standardization. University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.: Final report for standards and technical regulations directorate department of trade and industry; citation_publication_date=2000; citation_id=CR74; citation_author=GP Swann; citation_publisher=University of Manchester citation_journal_title=Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization; citation_title=Institutions, culture, and open source; citation_author=S Engelhardt, A Freytag; citation_volume=95; citation_publication_date=2013; citation_pages=90-110; citation_doi=10.1016/j.jebo.2013.08.012; citation_id=CR75 citation_journal_title=International Journal of Innovation in the Digital Economy; citation_title=On the geographic allocation of open source software activities; citation_author=S Engelhardt, A Freytag, C Schulz; citation_volume=4; citation_issue=2; citation_publication_date=2013; citation_pages=25-39; citation_doi=10.4018/jide.2013040103; citation_id=CR76 citation_journal_title=MIS Quarterly; citation_title=Carrots and rainbows: Motivation and social practice in open source software development; citation_author=G Krogh, S Haefliger, S Spaeth, MW Wallin; citation_volume=36; citation_issue=2; citation_publication_date=2012; citation_pages=649-676; citation_doi=10.2307/41703471; citation_id=CR77 citation_journal_title=The Journal of Strategic Information Systems; citation_title=The open source software phenomenon: characteristics that promote research; citation_author=G Krogh, S Spaeth; citation_volume=16; citation_issue=3; citation_publication_date=2007; citation_pages=236-253; citation_doi=10.1016/j.jsis.2007.06.001; citation_id=CR46 citation_journal_title=Technological Forecasting and Social Change; citation_title=The geography of open source software: Evidence from GitHub; citation_author=J Wachs, M Nitecki, W Schueller, A Polleres; citation_volume=176; citation_publication_date=2022; citation_pages=121478; citation_doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2022.121478; citation_id=CR78 citation_journal_title=Information Systems Research; citation_title=The impact of intellectual property rights enforcement on open source software project success; citation_author=W Wen, C Forman, S Graham; citation_volume=24; citation_issue=4; citation_publication_date=2013; citation_pages=1131-1146; citation_doi=10.1287/isre.2013.0479; citation_id=CR79 West, J. (2003). How open is open enough?: Melding proprietary and open source platform strategies. Research Policy, 327, 1259–1285. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-7333(03)00052-0 Wright, N., Nagle, F., & Greenstein, S. M. (2020). Open source software and global entrepreneurship. Harvard Business School Technology & Operations Mgt. Unit Working Paper No. 20–139.