Essential genes in thyroid cancers: focus on fascin

Cobin R, Gharib H, Bergman D, Clark O, Cooper D, Daniels G, Dickey R, Duick D, Garber J, Hay I: AACE/AAES medical/surgical guidelines for clinical practice: management of thyroid carcinoma. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists. American College of Endocrinology. Endocr Pract 2001, 7: 202. Haghpanah V, Soliemanpour B, Heshmat R, Mosavi-Jarrahi A, Tavangar S, Malekzadeh R, Larijani B: Endocrine cancer in Iran: based on cancer registry system. Indian J Cancer 2006, 43: 80. 10.4103/0019-509X.25889 Larijani B, Shirzad M, Mohagheghi M, Haghpanah V, Mosavi-Jarrahi A, Tavangar S, Vassigh A, Hossein-Nezhad A, Bandarian F, Baradar-Jalili R: Epidemiologic analysis of the Tehran cancer institute data system registry (TCIDSR). Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2004, 5: 36–39. Glattre E, Haldorsen T: Positive correlation between parity and incidence of thyroid cancer: new evidence based on complete Norwegian birth cohorts. Int J Cancer 1991, 49: 831–836. 10.1002/ijc.2910490606 Memon A, Darif M, Al-Saleh K, Suresh A: Epidemiology of reproductive and hormonal factors in thyroid cancer: Evidence from a case–control study in the Middle East. Int J Cancer 2002, 97: 82–89. 10.1002/ijc.1573 Mack WJ, Preston-Martin S, Bernstein L, Qian D, Xiang M: Reproductive and hormonal risk factors for thyroid cancer in Los Angeles County females. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1999, 8: 991–997. Amoli MM, Yazdani N, Amiri P, Sayahzadeh F, Haghpanah V, Tavangar SM, Amirzargar A, Ghaffari H, Nikbin B, Larijani B: HLA-DR association in papillary thyroid carcinoma. Dis Markers 2010, 28: 49–53. 10.1155/2010/130276 Maso LD, Vecchia CL, Franceschi S, Preston-Martin S, Ron E, Levi F, Mack W, Mark SD, McTiernan A, Kolonel L: A pooled analysis of thyroid cancer studies. V. Anthropometric factors. Cancer Causes Control 2000, 11: 137–144. 10.1023/A:1008938520101 Spitz MR, Sider JG, Katz RL, Pollack ES, Newell GR: Ethnic patterns of thyroid cancer incidence in the United States, 1973–1981. Int J Cancer 1988, 42: 549–553. 10.1002/ijc.2910420413 Laurberg P, Nøhr S, Pedersen K, Hreidarsson A, Andersen S, Pedersen IB, Knudsen N, Perrild H, Jørgensen T, Ovesen L: Thyroid disorders in mild iodine deficiency. Thyroid 2000, 10: 951–963. 10.1089/thy.2000.10.951 Yazdani N, Sayahpour FA, Haghpanah V, Amiri P, Shahrabi-Farahani M, Moradi M, Mirmiran A, Khorsandi M-T, Larijani B, Mostaan LV: Survivin gene polymorphism association with papillary thyroid carcinoma. Pathol Res Pract 2012, 208: 100–103. 10.1016/j.prp.2011.12.009 Williams E, Doniach I, Bjarnason O, Michie W: Thyroid cancer in an iodide rich area. A histopathological study. Cancer 1977, 39: 215–222. 10.1002/1097-0142(197701)39:1<215::AID-CNCR2820390134>3.0.CO;2-# Davies L, Welch HG: Increasing incidence of thyroid cancer in the United States, 1973–2002. J Am Med Assoc 2006, 295: 2164–2167. 10.1001/jama.295.18.2164 Castro MR, Gharib H: Thyroid nodules and cancer. When to wait and watch, when to refer. Postgrad Med 2000, 107: 113. Mortensen J, Woolner LB, Bennett WA: Gross and microscopic findings in clinically normal thyroid glands. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1955, 15: 1270–1280. 10.1210/jcem-15-10-1270 Roth LM: Tumors of the Thyroid Gland. Am J Surg Pathol 1993, 17: 1196. McNicol A: Functional Endocrine Pathology. Histopathology 1992, 20: 92. 92 10.1111/j.1365-2559.1992.tb00931.x Gilliland FD, Hunt WC, Morris DM, Key CR: Prognostic factors for thyroid carcinoma. Cancer 1997, 79: 564–573. 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0142(19970201)79:3<564::AID-CNCR20>3.0.CO;2-0 Wartofsky L, Van Nostrand D: Thyroid cancer: a comprehensive guide to clinical management. New Jersey: Humana Pr Inc; 2006. Kebebew E, Greenspan FS, Clark OH, Woeber KA, McMillan A: Anaplastic thyroid carcinoma. Cancer 2005, 103: 1330–1335. 10.1002/cncr.20936 Donghi R, Longoni A, Pilotti S, Michieli P, Della Porta G, Pierotti MA: Gene p53 mutations are restricted to poorly differentiated and undifferentiated carcinomas of the thyroid gland. J Clin Investig 1993, 91: 1753. 10.1172/JCI116385 Demeter J, De Jong S, Lawrence A, Paloyan E: Anaplastic thyroid carcinoma: risk factors and outcome. Surgery 1991, 110: 956. Zhang Q, Yang C, Guo Z, Zeng Z, Yang A, Lai F: Prognostic factors of medullary thyroid carcinoma. Chin J Otorhinolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2008, 43: 939. Hyer S, Vini L, Harmer C: Medullary thyroid cancer: multivariate analysis of prognostic factors influencing survival. Eur J Surg Oncol 2000, 26: 686–690. 10.1053/ejso.2000.0981 Saad MF, Ordonez NG, Rashid RK, Guido JJ, Hill CS Jr, Hickey RC, Samaan NA: Medullary carcinoma of the thyroid. A study of the clinical features and prognostic factors in 161 patients. Medicine 1984, 63: 319. Peto R: Epidemiology, multistage models, and short-term mutagenicity tests. Orig Human Cancer 1977, 4: 1403–1428. Weinberg RA: Tumor suppressor genes. Science 1991, 254: 1138–1146. 10.1126/science.1659741 Levine AJ: The p53 tumor-suppressor gene. N Engl J Med 1992, 326: 1350–1352. 10.1056/NEJM199205143262008 Freeman J, Carroll C, Asa S, Ezzat S: Genetic events in the evolution of thyroid cancer. J Otolaryngol 2002, 31: 202–206. 10.2310/7070.2002.21690 Nakamura T, Yana I, Kobayashi T, Shin E, Karakawa K, Fujita S, Miya A, Mori T, Nishisho I, Takai S: p53 gene mutations associated with anaplastic transformation of human thyroid carcinomas. Cancer Sci 1992, 83: 1293–1298. 10.1111/j.1349-7006.1992.tb02761.x Zou M, Shi Y, Farid N: p53 mutations in all stages of thyroid carcinomas. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1993, 77: 1054–1058. 10.1210/jc.77.4.1054 Bos JL: The ras gene family and human carcinogenesis. Mutat Res Rev Genet Toxicol 1988, 195: 255–271. 10.1016/0165-1110(88)90004-8 Barbacid M: Ras genes. Annu Rev Biochem 1987, 56: 779–827. 10.1146/annurev.bi.56.070187.004023 Bos JL: Ras oncogenes in human cancer: a review. Cancer Res 1989, 49: 4682. Suárez HG: Genetic alterations in human epithelial thyroid tumours. Clin Endocrinol 1998, 48: 531–546. 10.1046/j.1365-2265.1998.00443.x Lemoine N, Mayall E, Wyllie F, Williams E, Goyns M, Stringer B, Wynford-Thomas D: High frequency of ras oncogene activation in all stages of human thyroid tumorigenesis. Oncogene 1989, 4: 159. Kim D, McCabe C, Buchanan M, Watkinson J: Oncogenes in thyroid cancer. Clin Otolaryngol Allied Sci 2003, 28: 386–395. 10.1046/j.1365-2273.2003.00732.x Shi Y, Zou M, Schmidt H, Juhasz F, Stensky V, Robb D, Farid NR: High rates of ras codon 61 mutation in thyroid tumors in an iodide-deficient area. Cancer Res 1991, 51: 2690. Wright P, Lemoine N, Mayall E, Wyllie F, Hughes D, Williams E, Wynford-Thomas D: Papillary and follicular thyroid carcinomas show a different pattern of ras oncogene mutation. Br J Cancer 1989, 60: 576. 10.1038/bjc.1989.316 Fukushima T, Suzuki S, Mashiko M, Ohtake T, Endo Y, Takebayashi Y, Sekikawa K, Hagiwara K, Takenoshita S: BRAF mutations in papillary carcinomas of the thyroid. Oncogene 2003, 22: 6455–6457. 10.1038/sj.onc.1206739 Garcia-Rostan G, Zhao H, Camp RL, Pollan M, Herrero A, Pardo J, Wu R, Carcangiu ML, Costa J, Tallini G: Ras mutations are associated with aggressive tumor phenotypes and poor prognosis in thyroid cancer. J Clin Oncol 2003, 21: 3226–3235. 10.1200/JCO.2003.10.130 Quiros RM, Ding HG, Gattuso P, Prinz RA, Xu X: Evidence that one subset of anaplastic thyroid carcinomas are derived from papillary carcinomas due to BRAF and p53 mutations. Cancer 2005, 103: 2261–2268. 10.1002/cncr.21073 Santarpia L, El-Naggar AK, Cote GJ, Myers JN, Sherman SI: Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/akt and ras/raf-mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway mutations in anaplastic thyroid cancer. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008, 93: 278–284. Hou P, Liu D, Shan Y, Hu S, Studeman K, Condouris S, Wang Y, Trink A, El-Naggar AK, Tallini G: Genetic alterations and their relationship in the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt pathway in thyroid cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2007, 13: 1161–1170. 10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-06-1125 Learoyd DL, Marsh DJ, Richardson AL, Twigg SM, Delbridge L, Robinson BG: Genetic testing for familial cancer: consequences of RET proto-oncogene mutation analysis in multiple endocrine neoplasia, type 2. Arch Surg 1997, 132: 1022. 10.1001/archsurg.1997.01430330088015 Fusco A, Grieco M, Santoro M, Berlingieri M, Pilotti S, Pierotti M, Della Porta G, Vecchio G: A new oncogene in human thyroid papillary carcinomas and their lymph-nodal metastases. Nature 1987, 328: 170–172. 10.1038/328170a0 Hansford JR, Mulligan LM: Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 andRET: from neoplasia to neurogenesis. J Med Genet 2000, 37: 817–827. 10.1136/jmg.37.11.817 Viglietto G, Chiappetta G, Martinez-Tello FJ, Fukunaga FH, Tallini G, Rigopoulou D, Visconti R, Mastro A, Santoro M, Fusco A: RET/PTC oncogene activation is an early event in thyroid carcinogenesis. Oncogene 1995, 11: 1207. Grieco M, Santoro M, Berlingieri MT, Melillo RM, Donghi R, Bongarzone I, Pierotti MA, Della Ports G, Fusco A, Vecchiot G: PTC is a novel rearranged form of the ret proto-oncogene and is frequently detected in vivo in human thyroid papillary carcinomas. Cell 1990, 60: 557–563. 10.1016/0092-8674(90)90659-3 Lips C, Landsvater RM, Hoppener J, Geerdink RA, Blijham G, van Veen JMJS, van Gils A, de Wit MJ, Zewald RA, Berends M: Clinical screening as compared with DNA analysis in families with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A. N Engl J Med 1994, 331: 828–835. 10.1056/NEJM199409293311302 Ishizaka Y, Shima H, Sugimura T, Nagao M: Detection of phosphorylated retTPC oncogene product in cytoplasm. Oncogene 1992, 7: 1441. Heshmati HM, Gharib H, Khosla S, Abu-Lebdeh HS, Lindor NM, Thibodeau SN: Genetic testing in medullary thyroid carcinoma syndromes: mutation types and clinical significance. In Mayo Clinic; 27–30 May 1997. Rochester: Elsevier; 1997:430–436. Marsh DJ, Robinson BG, Andrew S, Richardson AL, Pojer R, Schnitzler M, Mulligan LM, Hyland VJ: A rapid screening method for the detection of mutations in the RET proto-oncogene in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A and familial medullary thyroid carcinoma families. Genomics 1994, 23: 477–479. 10.1006/geno.1994.1526 Höppner W, Ritter MM: A duplication of 12 bp in the critical cysteine rich domain of the RET proto-oncogene results in a distinct phenotype of multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A. Hum Mol Genet 1997, 6: 587. 587 10.1093/hmg/6.4.587 Höppner W, Dralle H, Brabant G: Duplication of 9 base pairs in the critical cysteine-rich domain of the RET proto-oncogene causes multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A. Hum Mutat 1998, 11: S128-S130. 10.1002/humu.1380110143 Mulligan LM, Marsh D, Robinson B, Schuffenecker I, Zedenius J, Lips C, Gagel R, Takai SI, Noll W, Fink M: Genotype-phenotype correlation in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2: report of the International RET Mutation Consortium. J Intern Med 1995, 238: 343–346. 10.1111/j.1365-2796.1995.tb01208.x Eng C, Clayton D, Schuffenecker I, Lenoir G, Cote G, Gagel RF, van Amstel HKP, Lips CJM, Nishisho I, Takai SI: The relationship between specific RET proto-oncogene mutations and disease phenotype in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2. J Am Med Assoc 1996, 276: 1575–1579. 10.1001/jama.1996.03540190047028 Gimm O, Marsh DJ, Andrew SD, Frilling A, Dahia PLM, Mulligan LM, Zajac JD, Robinson BG, Eng C: Germline dinucleotide mutation in codon 883 of the RETproto-oncogene in multiple endocrine neoplasia Type 2B without codon 918 mutation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997, 82: 3902–3904. 10.1210/jc.82.11.3902 Wajjwalku W, Nakamura S, Hasegawa Y, Miyazaki K, Satoh Y, Funahashi H, Matsuyama M, Takahashi M: Low Frequency of Rearrangements of the ret and trk Proto-oncogenes in Japanese Thyroid Papillary Carcinomas. Cancer Sci 1992, 83: 671–675. 10.1111/j.1349-7006.1992.tb01963.x Nikiforova MN, Biddinger PW, Caudill CM, Kroll TG, Nikiforov YE: PAX8-PPAR [gamma] rearrangement in thyroid tumors: RT-PCR and immunohistochemical analyses. Am J Surg Pathol 2002, 26: 1016. 10.1097/00000478-200208000-00006 Daum G, Eisenmann-Tappe I, Fries HW, Troppmair J, Rapp UR: The ins and outs of Raf kinases. Trends Biochem Sci 1994, 19: 474. 10.1016/0968-0004(94)90133-3 Lang J, Boxer M, MacKie R: Absence of exon 15 BRAF germline mutations in familial melanoma. Hum Mutat 2003, 21: 327–330. 10.1002/humu.10188 Avruch J, Khokhlatchev A, Kyriakis JM, Luo Z, Tzivion G, Vavvas D, Zhang XF: Ras activation of the Raf kinase. Recent Prog Horm Res 2001, 56: 127–156. 10.1210/rp.56.1.127 Kimura ET, Nikiforova MN, Zhu Z, Knauf JA, Nikiforov YE, Fagin JA: High prevalence of BRAF mutations in thyroid cancer. Cancer Res 2003, 63: 1454. Begum S, Rosenbaum E, Henrique R, Cohen Y, Sidransky D, Westra WH: BRAF mutations in anaplastic thyroid carcinoma: implications for tumor origin, diagnosis and treatment. Mod Pathol 2004, 17: 1359–1363. 10.1038/modpathol.3800198 Soares P, Trovisco V, Rocha AS, Feijao T, Rebocho AP, Fonseca E, Vieira de Castro I, Cameselle-Teijeiro J, Cardoso-Oliveira M, Sobrinho-Simoes M: BRAF mutations typical of papillary thyroid carcinoma are more frequently detected in undifferentiated than in insular and insular-like poorly differentiated carcinomas. Virchows Arch 2004, 444: 572–576. Takano T, Ito Y, Hirokawa M, Yoshida H, Miyauchi A: BRAFV600E mutation in anaplastic thyroid carcinomas and their accompanying differentiated carcinomas. Br J Cancer 2007, 96: 1549–1553. 10.1038/sj.bjc.6603764 Cohen Y, Xing M, Mambo E, Guo Z, Wu G, Trink B, Beller U, Westra WH, Ladenson PW, Sidransky D: BRAF mutation in papillary thyroid carcinoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 2003, 95: 625–627. 10.1093/jnci/95.8.625 Namba H, Nakashima M, Hayashi T, Hayashida N, Maeda S, Rogounovitch TI, Ohtsuru A, Saenko VA, Kanematsu T, Yamashita S: Clinical implication of hot spot BRAF mutation, V599E, in papillary thyroid cancers. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003, 88: 4393–4397. 10.1210/jc.2003-030305 Webb CP, Van Aelst L, Wigler MH, Vande Woude GF: Signaling pathways in Ras-mediated tumorigenicity and metastasis. Proc Natl Acad Sci 1998, 95: 8773. 10.1073/pnas.95.15.8773 Rajagopalan H, Bardelli A, Lengauer C, Kinzler KW, Vogelstein B, Velculescu VE: Tumorigenesis: RAF/RAS oncogenes and mismatch-repair status. Nature 2002, 418: 934. 934 10.1038/418934a Soares P, Trovisco V, Rocha AS, Lima J, Castro P, Preto A, Máximo V, Botelho T, Seruca R, Sobrinho-Simões M: BRAF mutations and RET/PTC rearrangements are alternative events in the etiopathogenesis of PTC. Oncogene 2003, 22: 4578–4580. 10.1038/sj.onc.1206706 Kroll TG, Sarraf P, Pecciarini L, Chen CJ, Mueller E, Spiegelman BM, Fletcher JA: PAX8-PPARgamma 1 fusion in oncogene human thyroid carcinoma. Sci Signal 2000, 289: 1357. Wu Y, Guo SW: Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma and retinoid X receptor agonists synergistically suppress proliferation of immortalized endometrial stromal cells. Fertil Steril 2009, 91: 2142–2147. 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.04.012 Ros P, Rossi DL, Acebrón A, Santisteban P: Thyroid-specific gene expression in the multi-step process of thyroid carcinogenesis. Biochimie 1999, 81: 389–396. 10.1016/S0300-9084(99)80086-8 Giordano TJ, Au AYM, Kuick R, Thomas DG, Rhodes DR, Wilhelm KG, Vinco M, Misek DE, Sanders D, Zhu Z: Delineation, functional validation, and bioinformatic evaluation of gene expression in thyroid follicular carcinomas with the PAX8-PPARG translocation. Clin Cancer Res 2006, 12: 1983–1993. 10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-05-2039 Kondo T, Ezzat S, Asa SL: Pathogenetic mechanisms in thyroid follicular-cell neoplasia. Nat Rev Cancer 2006, 6: 292–306. 10.1038/nrc1836 Castro P, Rebocho A, Soares R, Magalhaes J, Roque L, Trovisco V, de Castro IV, Cardoso-de-Oliveira M, Fonseca E, Soares P: PAX8-PPARγ rearrangement is frequently detected in the follicular variant of papillary thyroid carcinoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006, 91: 213–220. 10.1210/jc.2005-1336 Bullock MD, Sayan AE, Packham GK, Mirnezami AH: MicroRNAs: critical regulators of epithelial to mesenchymal (EMT) and mesenchymal to epithelial transition (MET) in cancer progression. Biol Cell 2012, 104: 3–12. 10.1111/boc.201100115 De Arcangelis A, Georges-Labouesse E, Adams JC: Expression of fascin-1 the gene encoding the actin-bundling protein fascin-1, during mouse embryogenesis. Gene Expr Patterns 2004, 4: 637–643. 10.1016/j.modgep.2004.04.012 Tubb BE, Bardien-Kruger S, Kashork CD, Shaffer LG, Ramagli LS, Xu J, Siciliano MJ, Bryan J: Characterization of Human Retinal Fascin Gene (< i > FSCN2</i>) at 17q25: Close Physical Linkage of Fascin and Cytoplasmic Actin Genes. Genomics 2000, 65: 146–156. 10.1006/geno.2000.6156 Tubb B, Mulholland DJ, Vogl W, Lan ZJ, Niederberger C, Cooney A, Bryan J: Testis fascin (FSCN3): a novel paralog of the actin-bundling protein fascin expressed specifically in the elongate spermatid head. Exp Cell Res 2002, 275: 92–109. 10.1006/excr.2002.5486 Adams JC: Roles of fascin in cell adhesion and motility. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2004, 16: 590–596. 10.1016/j.ceb.2004.07.009 Kureishy N, Sapountzi V, Prag S, Anilkumar N, Adams JC: Fascins, and their roles in cell structure and function. Bioessays 2002, 24: 350–361. 10.1002/bies.10070 Chen G, Zhang FR, Ren J, Tao LH, Shen ZY, Lv Z, Yu SJ, Dong BF, Xu LY, Li EM: Expression of fascin in thyroid neoplasms: a novel diagnostic marker. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 2008, 134: 947–951. 10.1007/s00432-008-0374-6 Hashimoto Y, Loftis DW, Adams JC: Fascin-1 promoter activity is regulated by CREB and the aryl hydrocarbon receptor in human carcinoma cells. PLoS One 2009, 4: e5130. 10.1371/journal.pone.0005130