Environmental risk assessment of anthropogenic activity in the deep-sea

Journal of Aquatic Ecosystem Health - Tập 7 Số 4 - Trang 299-315 - 2000
Ahnert, Ahmed1, Borowski, Christian2
1Friedrich-Kücken-Straße 7, Bleckede, Germany
2Zoologisches Institut und Museum, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany

Tóm tắt

The mining for mineral resources and the disposal of wastematerials are the major potential sources of environmental hazard for the deep-seasystem. Polymetallic nodules, manganese crusts, metalliferous sulphidic muds and massiveconsolidated sulphides might serve as exploitable sources of various metals, whilstphosporite deposits represent a further resource. The main types of waste targeted for deep-seadisposal are munitions, radioactive wastes, large offshore structures, sewage sludge anddredge spoils. Furthermore, it has recently been proposed to introduce hugequantities of carbon dioxide from industrial processes into the deep ocean in order tomitigate the greenhouse effect. A description of the different mineral resources and wastematerials is given, including information on the related technology and the status of thedumping and mining operations, respectively. The predicted effects of waste disposaland mining on the deep-seaenvironment are reviewed, possible impacts including removalof settling benthic substrate and mechanical stress exerted on soft bottomcommunities, plus impacts of sediment plumes, toxic materials and degradable organic matter.An overview of the major environmental studies in the deep sea is given. Twocategories of study can be discerned, research conducted after environmental impacts (e.g.,the monitoring of contamination by sewage sludge disposal off the New York Bight)and precautionary environmental studies on potential impacts threatening the deepsea environment in connection with its future human use (i.e., studies aiming toassess the possible effects of deep-sea mining). The development of large scale in-situexperiments was a new approach to the environmental risk assessment of nodule mining inthe deep sea. In the course of the DISCOL project in the south-east Pacific, the firstexperiment of this kind was implemented and monitored for three years. Another type oflarge-scale in-situexperimentation in the deep sea is represented by the BenthicImpact Experiments (BIEs) which have been conducted with similar experimental design by anumber of nations or multinational consortia. Since environmental impacts derivingfrom human penetration into the deep sea on an industrial scale are expected to besevere and long-lasting, a precautionary approach in the related environmental researchseems most appropriate. It is therefore proposed that environmental risk assessment in thedeep sea should rely on in-situ experiments which should start from a simulation ofsmall-scale impacts and proceed stepwise to the monitoring of a full-scale industrialoperation. At each stage impacts need to be evaluated thoroughly.

Từ khóa


Tài liệu tham khảo

citation_journal_title=Oceanus; citation_title=The ocean mining industry: A benefit for every risk?; citation_author=J. K. Amsbaugh, J. L. Van der Voort; citation_volume=25; citation_issue=3; citation_publication_date=1982; citation_pages=22-27; citation_id=CR1

citation_journal_title=Journal of Applied Ecology; citation_title=The ecology of the deep ocean and its relevance to global waste management; citation_author=M. V. Angel, A. L. Rice; citation_volume=33; citation_publication_date=1996; citation_pages=915-926; citation_id=CR2

Anon., 1995. Report of the Study Group on the Biology and Assessment of Deep-Sea Fisheries Resources. International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), C.M.1995/Assess:4, 99 pp. (Mimeo).

Anon., 1998a. 98/249/EC: Council decision of 7 October 1997 on the conclusion of the Convention for the protection of the marine environment of the north-east Atlantic. EU Official Journal L 104(03/04/199), p. 1.

Anon., 1998b. Convention for the protection of the marine environment of the north-east Atlantic. EU Official Journal L 104(03/04/1998), pp. 2–21.

citation_journal_title=Marine Pollution Bulletin; citation_title=Contamination of the deep-sea; citation_author=K. H. Ballschmiter, O. Froescheis, W. M. Jarman, G. Caillet; citation_volume=34; citation_issue=5; citation_publication_date=1997; citation_pages=288-289; citation_id=CR6

BEON, 1990. Effects of Beam-Trawl Fishery on the Bottom Fauna in the North Sea III. BEON Report No. 16, 57 pp.

citation_journal_title=ICES Journal of Marine Science; citation_title=Direct effects of beam trawling on macrofauna in a sandy sediment on the southern North Sea; citation_author=M. N. J. Bergman, M. Hup; citation_volume=49; citation_publication_date=1992; citation_pages=5-11; citation_id=CR8

citation_title=RRS Charles Darwin Cruise 112C, 19 May–24 June, 1998. Atlantic Margin Environmental Survey: Seabed of the deep-water areas (17th Round Trenches) to the north and west of Scotland; citation_publication_date=1999; citation_id=CR9; citation_author=B. J. Bett; citation_publisher=NERC/University of Southampton. Challenger Division for Seafloor Processes, Southampton Oceanography Centre

citation_journal_title=Nature; citation_title=Seasonal sedimentation of phytoplankton to the deep-sea benthos; citation_author=D. S. M. Billett, R. S. Lampitt, A. L. Rice, R. F. C. Mantoura; citation_volume=302; citation_publication_date=1983; citation_pages=520-522; citation_id=CR10

Binns, R. A. & D. Dekker, 1998. Der Mineralreichtum der Bismarcksee. Spektrum der Wissenschaft Spezial 1/1998, pp. 66–71.

citation_title=Marine Geology and Oceanography of the Pacific Manganese Nodule Province; citation_publication_date=1979; citation_id=CR12; citation_publisher=Plenum Press

citation_journal_title=Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vent Biology. Funchal, Madeira, Portugal, 20–24 October 1997; citation_author=M. Biscoito, C. Cary, D. Dixon, C. E. Wilson; citation_volume=39; citation_issue=3–4; citation_publication_date=1998; citation_pages=219-392; citation_id=CR13

citation_journal_title=Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems; citation_title=Monitoring megabenthic communities in abyssal manganese nodule sites of the East Pacific Ocean in association with commercial deep-sea mining; citation_author=H. Bluhm; citation_volume=4; citation_publication_date=1994; citation_pages=187-201; citation_id=CR14

citation_title=Megafauna as indicators for the recolonization of abyssal areas impacted by physical disturbances; citation_inbook_title=Proceedings of the International Symposium on Environmental Studies for Deep-Sea Mining; citation_publication_date=1997; citation_pages=211-221; citation_id=CR15; citation_author=H. Bluhm; citation_publisher=MMAJ

citation_journal_title=Marine Georesources and Geotechnology; citation_title=Megabenthic recolonization in an experimentally disturbed abyssal manganese nodule area; citation_author=H. Bluhm, G. Schriever, H. Thiel; citation_volume=13; citation_publication_date=1995; citation_pages=393-416; citation_id=CR16

citation_journal_title=Deep-Sea Research II; citation_title=Deep-sea macrofaunal impacts of a large-scale physical disturbance experiment in the Southeast Pacific; citation_author=C. Borowski, H. Thiel; citation_volume=45; citation_publication_date=1998; citation_pages=55-81; citation_id=CR17

citation_journal_title=Marine Environmental Research; citation_title=Sewage contamination in sediments beneath a deep-ocean dump site off New York; citation_author=M. H. Bothner, H. Takada, I. T. Knight, R. T. Hill, B. Butman, J. W. Farrington, R. R. Colwell, J. F. Grassle; citation_volume=38; citation_publication_date=1994; citation_pages=43-59; citation_id=CR18

citation_journal_title=Vie et Milieu; citation_title=Evaluation of abyssal metazoan meiofauna from a manganese nodule area of the eastern South Pacific; citation_author=C. Bussau, G. Schriever, H. Thiel; citation_volume=45; citation_publication_date=1995; citation_pages=39-48; citation_id=CR19

citation_journal_title=Natural Recourses Forum; citation_title=Assessment of cobalt-rich manganese crusts in the Hawaiian, Johnston and Palyra Islands Exclusive Economic Zones; citation_author=A. Clark, C. Johnson, P. Chin; citation_volume=8; citation_issue=2; citation_publication_date=1984; citation_pages=163-174; citation_id=CR20

Clark, A. L. & C. J. Johnson, 1986. Cobalt-rich manganese crust potential of the U.S. Trust and affiliated territories. Proceedings of the Offshore Technology Conference 3 (OTC Paper 5233), pp. 111–118.

citation_title=Economic and Development Potential of Manganese Nodules within the Cook Islands Exclusive Economical Zones (EEZ); citation_publication_date=1995; citation_id=CR22; citation_author=A. L. Clark; citation_author=J. A. Lum; citation_author=C. Li; citation_author=W. Icay; citation_author=C. Morgan; citation_author=Y. Igarashi; citation_publisher=East-West Centre, Univ. Hawaii

citation_title=Experience with management of orange roughy () in New Zealand waters, and the effect of commercial fishing on stocks over the period 1980–1993; citation_inbook_title=Deep-Water Fisheries of the North Atlantic Oceanic Slope; citation_publication_date=1995; citation_pages=251-266; citation_id=CR23; citation_author=M. Clark; citation_publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers

citation_title=The capacity of the deep oceans to absorb carbon dioxide; citation_inbook_title=Direct Ocean Disposal of Carbon Dioxide; citation_publication_date=1995; citation_pages=143-152; citation_id=CR24; citation_author=K. H. Cole; citation_author=G. R. Stegen; citation_author=D. Spencer; citation_publisher=Terra Scientific Publishing Co.

citation_title=Mining technology for Gorda Ridge sulfides; citation_inbook_title=Gorda Ridge – A Seafloor Spreading Centre in the United States Exclusive Economic Zone; citation_publication_date=1990; citation_pages=211-221; citation_id=CR25; citation_author=M. J. Cruickshank; citation_publisher=Springer

citation_title=Hot Brines and Recent Heavy Metal Deposits in the Red Sea (A Geochemical and Geophysical Account); citation_publication_date=1969; citation_id=CR26; citation_publisher=Springer

citation_title=Réactions de l'écosystème benthique profond aux pertubations: nouveaux résultas expérimenteaux; citation_inbook_title=Peuplements Profonds du Golfe de Gascogne. Campagnes BIOGAS; citation_publication_date=1985; citation_pages=121-142; citation_id=CR27; citation_author=D. Desbruyères; citation_author=J. W. Eming; citation_author=A. Dinet; citation_author=A. Khripounoff; citation_publisher=IFREMER

citation_title=Environmental surveys of two deep-sea radioactive waste disposal sites using submersibles; citation_inbook_title=Management of Radioactive Wastes from the Nuclear Fuel Cycle; citation_publication_date=1976; citation_pages=317-328; citation_id=CR28; citation_author=R. S. Dyer; citation_publisher=International Atomic Energy Agency

citation_journal_title=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta; citation_title=Hydrocarbons in the western North Atlantic surface sediments; citation_author=J.W. Farrington, B.W. Tripp; citation_volume=41; citation_publication_date=1977; citation_pages=1627-1641; citation_id=CR29

Foell, E. J., G. Schriever, H. Bluhm, C. Borowski, C. Bussau & H. Thiel, 1992. Disturbance and recolonization experiment in the abyssal South Pacific Ocean (DISCOL): An update. Proceedings of the Offshore Technology Conference (OTC Paper 6805), pp. 25–34.

Fukushima, T., 1995. Overview “Japan Deep-Sea Impact Experiment = JET”. Proceedings of the ISOPE-Ocean Mining Symposium. Tsukuba, Japan, November 21–22, pp. 47–53.

citation_journal_title=Journal of Marine Environmental Engineering; citation_title=Bioaccumulation levels of chlorinated hydrocarbons in blue hake, rattail, halosaur and lobster; citation_author=D. F. Gadbois, B. W. Dockum, D. S. Uljua; citation_volume=3; citation_issue=2–4; citation_publication_date=1996; citation_pages=189-203; citation_id=CR32

citation_title=Deep-Sea Biology; citation_publication_date=1991; citation_id=CR33; citation_author=J. D. Gage; citation_author=P. A. Tyler; citation_publisher=Cambridge University Press

GESAMP, 1990. The state of the marine environment. UNEP Regional Seas Report and Studies 115.

citation_journal_title=Nature; citation_title=Slow recolonization of deep-sea sediment; citation_author=J. F. Grassle; citation_volume=265; citation_publication_date=1977; citation_pages=618-619; citation_id=CR35

citation_journal_title=EOS Transactions, American Geophysical Union; citation_title=Affects of sewage sludge on deep-sea communities; citation_author=J. F. Grassle; citation_volume=72; citation_issue=51Suppl.; citation_publication_date=1991; citation_pages=84; citation_id=CR36

citation_journal_title=Deep-Sea Research; citation_title=Macrofaunal colonization of disturbed deep-sea environments and the structure of deep-sea benthic communities; citation_author=J. F. Grassle, L. S. Morse-Porteous; citation_volume=34; citation_issue=12; citation_publication_date=1987; citation_pages=1911-1950; citation_id=CR37

citation_title=The Manganese Nodule Belt of the Pacific Ocean; citation_publication_date=1988; citation_id=CR38; citation_publisher=Enke

citation_journal_title=Proceedings OCEANIS' 87; citation_title=Characterization of Co-rich ferromanganese crust fields within the Johnston Island EEZ (Central Pacific); citation_author=P. Halbach, C. D. Sattler, F. Teichmann, M. Washner; citation_volume=3; citation_publication_date=1987; citation_pages=1015-1020; citation_id=CR39

citation_journal_title=Oceanography and Marine Biology Annual Review; citation_title=Physical disturbance and marine benthic communities: Life in unconsolidated sediments; citation_author=S. J. Hall; citation_volume=32; citation_publication_date=1994; citation_pages=179-239; citation_id=CR40

citation_journal_title=EOS Transactions, American Geophysycal Union; citation_title=Megafaunal assemblages at 2 600 m on the upper rise off New Jersey; citation_author=B. Hecker; citation_volume=72; citation_issue=51Suppl.; citation_publication_date=1991; citation_pages=84; citation_id=CR41

citation_journal_title=Oikos; citation_title=The influence of submarine turbidity currents on abyssal productivity; citation_author=B. C. Heezen, M. Ewing, R. J. Menzies; citation_volume=6; citation_publication_date=1955; citation_pages=170-182; citation_id=CR42

citation_title=The Face of the Deep; citation_publication_date=1971; citation_id=CR43; citation_author=B. C. Heezen; citation_author=C. D. Hollister; citation_publisher=Oxford University Press

citation_journal_title=Proceedings of the Offshore Technology Conference; citation_title=Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts from the Central Pacific; citation_author=J. R. Hein, F. T. Manheim, W. C. Schwab; citation_volume=3; citation_publication_date=1986; citation_pages=119-126; citation_id=CR44

Herrouin, G., J.-P. Lenoble, C. Charles, F. Mauviel, J. Bernard & B. Taine, 1989. A manganese nodule industrial venture would be profitable: Summary of a four year study in France. Proceedings of the Offshore Technology Conference, 1989, Houston. (OTC Paper 5997), pp. 321–331.

citation_journal_title=EOS Transactions, American Geophysical Union; citation_title=Benthic distribution of sludge indicated by Clostridium perfringens spores at a sewage disposal site off the coast of New Jersey; citation_author=R. Hill, I. Knight, M. Anikis, W. Straube, R. R. Colwell; citation_volume=72; citation_issue=51Suppl.; citation_publication_date=1991; citation_pages=83; citation_id=CR46

citation_journal_title=Nature; citation_title=Sedimentation under deepsea storms; citation_author=C. D. Hollister, I. N. McCave; citation_volume=309; citation_publication_date=1984; citation_pages=220-225; citation_id=CR47

citation_journal_title=Scientific American; citation_title=The dynamic abyss; citation_author=C. D. Hollister, A. R. M. Nowell, P. A. Jumars; citation_volume=250; citation_publication_date=1983; citation_pages=32-43; citation_id=CR48

citation_title=The underground disposal of carbon dioxide: Summary report; citation_inbook_title=Non-Nuclear Energy R & D Programme JOULE II, CEC; citation_publication_date=1996; citation_id=CR49; citation_author=S. Holloway; citation_author=J. P. Heederik; citation_author=L. G. H. van der Meer; citation_author=I. Czernichowski-Lauriol; citation_author=R. Harrison; citation_author=E. Lindeberg; citation_author=I. R. Summerfield; citation_author=C. Rochelle; citation_author=T. Schwarzkopf; citation_author=O. Kaarstad; citation_author=B. Berger; citation_publisher=British Geological Survey

IMO, 1994. Disposal at sea of obsolete ammunition – prior reporting procedure. Notification by the Government of South Africa. London Convention 1972 LC.2/Circ.347 5 December 1994.

citation_journal_title=Advances in Marine Biology; citation_title=The effects of fishing on marine ecosystems; citation_author=S. Jennings, M. J. Kaiser; citation_volume=34; citation_publication_date=1998; citation_pages=201-352; citation_id=CR51

citation_title=United states practices and politics for ocean disposal of radioactive wastes, 1946–1984; citation_publication_date=1984; citation_id=CR52; citation_author=R. G. Johnson; citation_author=M. Kahn; citation_author=C. Robbins; citation_publisher=US Environmental Protection Agency

citation_journal_title=Marine Mining; citation_title=Limits in predicting and detecting benthic community responses to manganese nodule mining; citation_author=P. Jumars; citation_volume=3; citation_issue=1/2; citation_publication_date=1981; citation_pages=213-229; citation_id=CR53

citation_title=Spatial structure within deep sea benthic communities; citation_inbook_title=The Sea, Vol. 8: Deep-Sea Biology; citation_publication_date=1983; citation_pages=399-451; citation_id=CR54; citation_author=P. A. Jumars; citation_author=J. E. Eckman; citation_publisher=John Wiley & Sons

Kaarstad, O., 1994. Norway pioneers large scale CO2 disposal in 1996. Greenhouse issues 15, August.

Kajitani, Y., 1997. The Japanese environmental impact research for manganese nodules. Proceedings of the Second (1997) Ocean Mining Symposium, Seoul, Korea, November 24–26, pp. 131–138.

Kaneko, S. T., K. Ogawa & T. Fukushima, 1995. Preliminary results of meiofauna and bacteria abundance in an environmental impact experiment. Proceedings of the ISOPE-Ocean Mining Symposium, Tsukuba, Japan, November 21–22, pp. 181–186.

citation_title=Hot brines and deep sea environment; citation_inbook_title=Red Sea (Key Environments); citation_publication_date=1987; citation_pages=70-89; citation_id=CR58; citation_author=L. Karbe; citation_publisher=Pergamon Press

Karbe, L., M. O. Moammar, D. Nasr & C. Schnier, 1981a. Heavy metals in the Red Sea environment. In: Karbe, L., H. Thiel, H. Weikert & A.J.B. Mill (eds), Mining of Metalliferous Sediments from the Atlantis II Deep, Red Sea. Draft report to the Sudanese Red Sea Joint Commission, Univ. Hamburg: 195–225.

Karbe, L. & D. Nasr, 1981. Chemical and toxicological compositions of the tailings material. Mining of Metalliferous Sediments from the Atlantis-II-Deep, Red Sea. Draft report to the Saudi-Sudanese Red Sea Joint Commission, Univ. Hamburg: 245–253.

Karbe, L., H. Thiel, H. Weikert & A.J.B. Mill (eds), 1981b. Mining of Metalliferous Sediments from the Atlantis-II-Deep, Red Sea: Pre-Mining Environmental Conditions and Evaluation of the Risk to the Environment (Draft). Environmental impact study report to the Saudi-Sudanese Red Sea Joint Commission, Univ. Hamburg, 352 pp.

citation_journal_title=Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Scientific Fisheries; citation_title=Heavy metal contents in deep-sea fishes; citation_author=R. Kobayashi, E. Hirata, K. Shiomi, H. Yamanaka, T. Kikuchi; citation_volume=45; citation_issue=4; citation_publication_date=1979; citation_pages=493-497; citation_id=CR62

citation_title=The seamount fauna off southern Tasmania: Benthic communities, their conservation and impact of trawling; citation_inbook_title=Final Report to Environment Australia and The Fisheries Research Development Corporation; citation_publication_date=1998; citation_id=CR63; citation_author=J. A. Koslow; citation_author=K. Gowlett-Holmes; citation_publisher=Fisheries Research Development Corporation

citation_journal_title=Chemosphere; citation_title=Global baseline pollution studies IX: C6–C14 organochlorine compounds in surface water and deep-sea fish from the Eastern North Atlantic; citation_author=W. Krämer, H. Buchert, U. Reuter, M. Biscoito, D. G. Maul, G. Le Grand, K. Ballschmiter; citation_volume=13; citation_publication_date=1984; citation_pages=1255-1267; citation_id=CR64

citation_journal_title=Deep-Sea Research; citation_title=Disturbance, colonization and succession in a deep-sea sediment community: artificial mound experiments; citation_author=H. Kukert, C. R. Smith; citation_volume=39; citation_issue=7/8; citation_publication_date=1992; citation_pages=1349-1371; citation_id=CR65

citation_journal_title=Deep-Sea Research; citation_title=The impact of seasonally deposited phytodetritus on epifaunal and shallow infaunal benthic foraminiferal populations in the bathyal northeast Atlantic: The assemblage response; citation_author=P. J. D. Lambshead, A. J. Gooday; citation_volume=37; citation_publication_date=1990; citation_pages=1263-1283; citation_id=CR66

citation_journal_title=Deep-Sea Research; citation_title=Response of background fauna to disturbance and enrichment in the deep sea: a sediment tray experiment; citation_author=L. A. Levin, C. R. Smith; citation_volume=31; citation_issue=11; citation_publication_date=1984; citation_pages=1277-1285; citation_id=CR67

citation_title=The effects of different types of fisheries on the North Sea and Irish Sea benthic ecosystems; citation_publication_date=1998; citation_id=CR68; citation_author=H. J. Lindeboom; citation_author=S. J. de Groot; citation_publisher=Netherlands Institute for Sea Reserch

citation_journal_title=Climate Change; citation_title=On geoengineering and the CO2 problem; citation_author=C. Marchetti; citation_volume=1; citation_publication_date=1977; citation_pages=59-68; citation_id=CR69

Maybury, C., 1996. Crevice formaminifera from abyssal South East Pacific manganese nodules. In: Moguilevsky, A. & R. Watley (eds), Microfossils and Oceanic Environments. University of Wales, Aberystwyth-Press: 282–293.

citation_journal_title=Marine Ecology Progress Series; citation_title=Mercury concentrations in prey fish indicate enhanced bioaccumulation in mesopelagic environments; citation_author=L. R. Monteiro, V. Costa, R. W. Furness, R. S. Santos; citation_volume=141; citation_issue=1–3; citation_publication_date=1996; citation_pages=21-25; citation_id=CR71

citation_journal_title=Journal of Marine Environmental Engineering; citation_title=Historical comparison of the structure of demersal fish communities near a deep-sea disposal site in the western North Atlantic; citation_author=J. A. Musick, J. C. Desfosse, S. Wilk, D. McMillan, E. Grogan; citation_volume=3; citation_issue=2–4; citation_publication_date=1996; citation_pages=149-171; citation_id=CR72

citation_title=Review of the continued suitability of the dumping site for radioactive waste in the North-East Atlantic; citation_publication_date=1980; citation_id=CR73; citation_publisher=OECD Nuclear Energy Agency

NEA, 1985. Review of the continued suitability of the dumping site for radioactive waste in the North-east Atlantic. OECD Nuclear Energy Agency, 448 pp.

citation_title=Co-ordinated research and environmental surveillance programme related to sea disposal of radioactive waste – active report 1986–1990; citation_publication_date=1990; citation_id=CR75; citation_publisher=OECD Nuclear Energy Agency

NERC, 1996. Scientific Group on Decommissioning Off-shore Structures: First report. Report by the National Environmental Research Council for the Department of Trade and Industry (UK), 76 pp.

citation_title=Deep-Sea Mining and Its Environmental Consequences, Part 2. Deep-Ocean Mining Technology: A Review; citation_publication_date=1998; citation_id=CR77; citation_author=H. U. Oebius; citation_publisher=TU Berlin, FB 6/ITU, Arbeitsgebiet Wasser-, Umwelt-, Meeresforschung/-Technik

Omerod, B. & M. Angel (eds), 1996. Ocean Storage of Carbon Dioxide: Workshop 2 – Environmental Impact. IEA Greenhouse Gas R & D Programme, Cheltenham, 131 pp.

citation_title=Review of Sewage Sludge Disposal at Sea; citation_publication_date=1989; citation_id=CR79; citation_publisher=Oslo Commission

citation_title=North Sea Quality Status Report 1993; citation_publication_date=1993; citation_id=CR80; citation_publisher=Oslo Commission

citation_journal_title=Deep-Sea Research; citation_title=The IOSDL DEEPSEAS programme: Introduction and photographic evidence for the presence and absence of seasonal input of phytodetritus at contrasting abyssal sites in the north-eastern Atlantic; citation_author=A. L. Rice, M. H. Thurston, B. J. Bett; citation_volume=41; citation_issue=9; citation_publication_date=1994; citation_pages=1305-1320; citation_id=CR81

citation_journal_title=Journal of Marine Research; citation_title=The influence of deposit feeding-organisms on bottom sediment stability and community trophic structure; citation_author=D. C. Rhoads, D. K. Young; citation_volume=28; citation_publication_date=1970; citation_pages=150-178; citation_id=CR82

Robertson, A. (ed.), 1996. Offshore disposal: Results of the 106 mile dumpsite study. Part 3: Biological fates and effects. Journal of Marine Environmental Engineering 3: 99–326.

citation_journal_title=Advances in Marine Biology; citation_title=The biology of seamounts; citation_author=A. D. Rogers; citation_volume=30; citation_publication_date=1994; citation_pages=305-350; citation_id=CR84

citation_journal_title=International Review of Hydrobiology; citation_title=The biology of Lophelia pertusa (Linnaeus 1758) and other deep-water reef-forming corals and impacts from human activities; citation_author=A. D. Rogers; citation_volume=84; citation_issue=4; citation_publication_date=1999; citation_pages=315-406; citation_id=CR85

citation_journal_title=MTS Journal; citation_title=Non-energy marine mineral resources of the world oceans; citation_author=T. J. Rowland; citation_volume=19; citation_issue=4; citation_publication_date=1985; citation_pages=6-17; citation_id=CR86

citation_journal_title=Marine Pollution Bulletin; citation_title=Chemical and toxicological characteristics of sewage sludge ocean dumped in the New York Bight; citation_author=E. D. Santorow, T. J. Fikslin; citation_volume=18; citation_publication_date=1987; citation_pages=394-399; citation_id=CR87

citation_journal_title=Nature; citation_title=Changing hydrothermal activity in the Atlantis II Deep geothermal system; citation_author=M. Schoell, M. Hartmann; citation_volume=274; citation_publication_date=1978; citation_pages=784-785; citation_id=CR88

Schriever, G., H. Bluhm, A. Boetius, C. Borowski, C. Bussau & H. Thiel, 1992. DISCOL – Precautionary large scale environmental impact studies for future polymetallic nodule mining from the deep sea. In: Manna, R. (ed.), The Mining Outlook. Proceedings of the 15th World Mining Congress, 25–26 May, Madrid: 1311–1319.

citation_journal_title=Proceedings of the Advanced Marine Technology Conference; citation_title=Discol-precautionary environmental impact studies for future manganese nodule mining and first results on meiofauna abundance; citation_author=G. Schriever, C. Bussau, H. Thiel; citation_volume=4; citation_publication_date=1991; citation_pages=47-57; citation_id=CR90

Scott, S. D., 1992. Polymetallic sulfide riches from the deep: Fact or fallacy. In: Hsu, K. J. & J. Thiede (eds.), Use and Misuse of the Seafloor. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.: 87–115.

SEBA, 1995. Oslo and Paris Conventions for the prevention of marine pollution: Working group on sea-bed activities (SEBA). Summ. Rec. SEBA 95/8/1-E.

citation_journal_title=Jorunal of Marine Environmental Engineering; citation_title=Metals in deepwater fishes and shrimps; citation_author=G. Sennefelder, S. Chang, R. Greig, F. Thurberg, A. Calabrese; citation_volume=3; citation_issue=2–4; citation_publication_date=1996; citation_pages=205-225; citation_id=CR93

Sharma, R. & B. N. Nath, 1997. Benthic disturbance and monitoring experiment in the central Indian Ocean. Proceedings of the Second (1997) Ocean Mining Symposium Seoul, Korea, 24–26 November, pp. 146–153.

citation_journal_title=Transactions American Geophysical Union; citation_title=Mass movements in submarine canyon heads; citation_author=F. P. Shepard; citation_volume=32; citation_publication_date=1951; citation_pages=405-418; citation_id=CR95

citation_title=Reconnaissance photographique de conteneurs en place dans la zone d'immersion des dechets faiblement radioactifs de l'Atlantique Nord-Est; citation_publication_date=1985; citation_id=CR96; citation_author=M. Sibuet; citation_author=D. Calmet; citation_author=G. Auffret; citation_publisher=Compte Rendue de l'Académie des Sciences

citation_title=Photographic prospection of the NEA dumpsite in the northeast Atlantic: Quantitative distribution of epibenthic megafauna, interim oceanographic description of the North-east Atlantic site for the disposal of low-level radioactive waste; citation_publication_date=1989; citation_id=CR97; citation_author=M. Sibuet; citation_author=D. Coic; citation_publisher=OECD Nuclear Energy Agency

citation_journal_title=Deep-Sea Research II; citation_title=Phytodetritus at the abyssal seafloor across 10 of latitude in the central equatorial Pacific; citation_author=C. R. Smith, D. J. Hoover, S. E. Dawn, R. H. Pope, D. D. DeMaster, F. C. Dobbs, M. A. Altabet; citation_volume=43; citation_issue=4–6; citation_publication_date=1996; citation_pages=1309-1338; citation_id=CR98

citation_journal_title=Journal of Marine Research; citation_title=Macrofaunal response to artificial enrichments and depressions in a deep-sea habitat; citation_author=P. V. R. Snelgrove, J. F. Grassle, R. F. Petrecca; citation_volume=52; citation_publication_date=1994; citation_pages=345-369; citation_id=CR99

citation_journal_title=Science; citation_title=Monooxygenase induction and chlorobiphenyls in the deep-sea fish Coryphaenoides armatus ; citation_author=J. J. Stegeman, P. J. Kloepper-Sams, J. W. Farrington; citation_volume=231; citation_publication_date=1986; citation_pages=1287-1289; citation_id=CR100

citation_journal_title=Marine Pollution Bulletin; citation_title=Metals and organic contaminants in Northwest Atlantic deep-sea tilefish tissues; citation_author=F. W. Steimle, V. S. Zdanowicz, D. F. Gadbois; citation_volume=21; citation_publication_date=1990; citation_pages=530-535; citation_id=CR101

citation_journal_title=Journal of Marine Environmental Engineering; citation_title=Contaminants and cytochrome P4501A induction in bottom fish collected near the 106-mile dumpsite; citation_author=W. G. Steinhauer, C. D. Hunt, C. S. Peven, R. E. Hillman, M. J. Moore, J. J. Stegeman, D. Redford; citation_volume=3; citation_issue=2–4; citation_publication_date=1996; citation_pages=173-187; citation_id=CR102

citation_journal_title=Nature; citation_title=High levels of natural radionuclides in a deep-sea infaunal xenophyophore; citation_author=D. D. Swinbanks, Y. Shirayama; citation_volume=320; citation_publication_date=1986; citation_pages=345-357; citation_id=CR103

citation_journal_title=Umi La Mer; citation_title=A model of the effects of an infaunal xenophyophore on 210Pb distribution in deep-sea sediment; citation_author=D. D. Swinbanks, Y. Shirayama; citation_volume=24; citation_publication_date=1986; citation_pages=69-74; citation_id=CR104

citation_journal_title=Environmental Science and Technology; citation_title=Transport of sludge-derived organic pollutants to deep-sea sediments at Deep Water Dump Site 106; citation_author=H. Takada, J. W. Farrington, M. H. Bothner, C. G. Johnson, B. W. Tripp; citation_volume=28; citation_publication_date=1994; citation_pages=1062-1072; citation_id=CR105

citation_journal_title=EOS Transactions, American Geophysical Union; citation_title=Detection and implication of sewage sludge organic chemicals in the sediments at deep water dumpsite 106; citation_author=H. Takada, B. W. Tripp, C. H. Clifford, J. Farrington, M. Bothner; citation_volume=72; citation_issue=51Suppl.; citation_publication_date=1991; citation_pages=83; citation_id=CR106

citation_title=Environmental impact resulting from deep-sea mining and risk assessment; citation_inbook_title=Law of the Sea at the Crossroads: The Continuing Search for a Universally Accepted Régime; citation_publication_date=1991; citation_pages=87-96; citation_id=CR107; citation_author=H. Thiel; citation_publisher=Duncker & Humblot

citation_journal_title=Marine Mining; citation_title=From MESEDA to DISCOL: A new approach to deep-sea mining risk assessment; citation_author=H. Thiel; citation_volume=10; citation_publication_date=1991; citation_pages=369-386; citation_id=CR108

citation_journal_title=Internationale Revue der gesamten Hydrobiologie; citation_title=Deep-sea environmental disturbance and recovery potential; citation_author=H. Thiel; citation_volume=77; citation_publication_date=1992; citation_pages=331-339; citation_id=CR109

Thiel, H. (ed), submitted. Environmental Impact Studies for the Mining of Polymetallic Nodules from the Deep Sea. Deep-Sea Research II.

Thiel, H., M. V. Angel, E. J. Foell, A. L. Rice & G. Schriever, 1998. Environmental risks from large-scale ecological research in the deep sea – a desk study. Report to the Commission of the European Communities. Directorate-General for Science, Research and Development under contract no. MAS2-CT94-0086, Bremerhaven, 210 pp.

citation_journal_title=Potential environmental effects of deep seabed mining; citation_author=H. Thiel, E. J. Foell, G. Schriever; citation_volume=26; citation_publication_date=1991; citation_pages=1-243; citation_id=CR112

Thiel, H. & A. L. Rice, 1997. The environmental consequences of large-scale research in the Deep Ocean. Proceedings of the 7th International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference, May 25–30, pp. 434–437.

citation_journal_title=Ambio; citation_title=Deep-sea mining, environmental impact and the DISCOL project; citation_author=H. Thiel, G. Schriever; citation_volume=19; citation_publication_date=1990; citation_pages=245-250; citation_id=CR114

citation_journal_title=Deep-Sea Research I; citation_title=Manganese nodule crevice fauna; citation_author=H. Thiel, G. Schriever, C. Bussau, C. Borowski; citation_volume=40; citation_issue=2; citation_publication_date=1993; citation_pages=419-423; citation_id=CR115

citation_journal_title=Ambio; citation_title=Risk assessment for mining metalliferous muds in the Red Sea; citation_author=H. Thiel, H. Weikert, L. Karbe; citation_volume=15; citation_issue=1; citation_publication_date=1986; citation_pages=34-41; citation_id=CR116

Tkachenko, G. G., T. Radziejevska, V. Stoyanova, I. Modlitba & A. Parizek, 1996. Benthic Impact Experiment in the IOM pioneer area: Testing for effects of deep seabed disturbance. Proceedings of the International Seminar on Deep Sea-Bed Mining Technology, October 18–20, COMRA, Beijing, PR China, pp. C55–C68.

citation_title=Russian (USSR) fisheries research in deep waters (below 500 m.) in the North Atlantic; citation_inbook_title=Deep-Water Fisheries of the North Atlantic Oceanic Slope; citation_publication_date=1995; citation_pages=357-365; citation_id=CR118; citation_author=F. M. Troyanovsky; citation_author=S. F. Lisovsky; citation_publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers

Trueblood, D. D. & E. Ozturgut, 1997. The Benthic Impact Experiment: A study of ecological impacts on deep seabed mining on abyssal benthic communities. Proceedings of the seventh (1997) ISOPE Conference, May 25–30, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA, pp. 481–487.

Trueblood, D. D., E. Ozturgut, M. Pilipchuk & I. F. Glumov, 1997. The ecological impacts of the U.S.–Russian Benthic Impact Experiment. Proceedings of the Second Ocean Mining Symposium Seoul, Korea, November 24–26, pp. 139–145.

citation_journal_title=Oceanography and Marine Biology Annual Review; citation_title=Seasonality in the deep sea; citation_author=P. A. Tyler; citation_volume=26; citation_publication_date=1988; citation_pages=227-258; citation_id=CR121

citation_journal_title=Deep-Sea Research; citation_title=Seasonal reproduction of Echinus affinis (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) in the Rockall Trough, north-east Atlantic Ocean; citation_author=P. A. Tyler, J. D. Gage; citation_volume=31; citation_publication_date=1984; citation_pages=387-402; citation_id=CR122

Valent, P. J. & D. K. Young, 1995. Abyssal seafloor waste isolation: Environmental report. Naval Research Laboratory, Stennis Space Center, NRL/MR/7401-95-7576, 479 pp.

citation_journal_title=Nature; citation_title=Stable isotope evidence for entry of sewage-derived organic material into a deep-sea food web; citation_author=C. L. Van Dover, J. F. Grassle, B. Fry, R. H. Garritt, V. R. Starczak; citation_volume=360; citation_publication_date=1992; citation_pages=153-156; citation_id=CR124

Zaiger, K. K., 1994. Potential marine mining by in situ leaching and recovery of metals from cobalt-rich ferromanganese ocean crust. MTS 94 Conference Proceedings of the Marine Technology Society, Washington DC, pp. 226–232.