Environmental factors in offspring of parents with mood disorders and their role in parent–child transmission: findings from a 14-year prospective high-risk study
Tóm tắt
The factors involved in the transmission of mood disorders are only partially elucidated. Aside from genes, the family environment might play a crucial role in parent–child transmission. Our goals were to (1) assess the associations of parental bipolar disorder (BPD) and Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) with individual or shared family environmental factors, including traumatic events in offspring, parental separation, family cohesion and parental attitudes; and 2) test whether these factors were mediators of the association between exposure to parental mood disorders and the onset of these disorders in offspring. The sample stems from an ongoing family high-risk study of mood disorders conducted in the French-speaking part of Switzerland. Given the strong impact of the age of onset of parental disorders on their transmission to children, parental disorders were dichotomized according to the onset (cut-off 21 years). Probands with early-onset (n = 30) and later-onset BPD (n = 51), early-onset (n = 21) and later-onset MDD (n = 47) and controls (n = 65), along with their spouses (n = 193) and offspring (n = 388; < 18 years on study inclusion), were assessed over a mean follow-up duration of 14 years (s.d: 4.6). The environmental measures were based on reports by offspring collected before the onset of their first mood episode. Offspring of probands with later-onset BPD and offspring of probands with both early-onset and later-onset MDD reported traumatic events more frequently than comparison offspring, whereas exposure to parental separation was more frequent in all groups of high-risk offspring. Moreover, several familial environment scores including parenting attitudes differed between offspring of probands with BPD and comparison offspring. However, none of these factors were mediators of the parent–child transmission of BPD. Among the environmental factors, traumatic events were shown to be modest mediators of the transmission of early-onset MDD. Our data do not support the implication of the assessed environmental factors in the parent–child transmission of BPD. In contrast to BPD, traumatic events partially mediate the parent–child transmission of early-onset MDD, which has important implications for intervention and prevention. Early therapeutic efforts in offspring exposed to these events are likely to reduce their deleterious impact on the risk of subsequent MDD.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Aas M, Henry C, Andreassen OA, Bellivier F, Melle I, Etain B. The role of childhood trauma in bipolar disorders. Int J Bipolar Disord. 2016;4(1):2.
Andreasen NC, Endicott J, Spitzer RL, Winokur G. The family history method using diagnostic criteria: reliability and validity. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1977;34(10):1229–35.
Asselmann E, Wittchen HU, Lieb R, Perkonigg A, Beesdo-Baum K. Incident mental disorders in the aftermath of traumatic events: a prospective-longitudinal community study. J Affect Disord. 2018;227:82–9.
Backer C, Murphy R, Fox JRE, Ulph F, Calam R. Young children’s experiences of living with a parent with bipolar disorder: understanding the child’s perspective. Psychol Psychother. 2017;90(2):212–28.
Barker ED, Copeland W, Maughan B, Jaffee SR, Uher R. Relative impact of maternal depression and associated risk factors on offspring psychopathology. Br J Psychiatry. 2012;200(2):124–9.
Baron RM, Kenny DA. The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1986;51(6):1173–82.
Beardslee WR, Gladstone TR, O’Connor EE. Transmission and prevention of mood disorders among children of affectively ill parents: a review. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2011;50(11):1098–109.
Berney A, Preisig M, Matthey ML, Ferrero F, Fenton BT. Diagnostic interview for genetic studies (DIGS): inter-rater and test-retest reliability of alcohol and drug diagnoses. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2002;65(2):149–58.
Carlson GA, Pataki C. Understanding early age of onset: a review of the last 5 years. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2016;18(12):114.
Chambers WJ, Puig-Antich J, Hirsch M, Paez P, Ambrosini PJ, Tabrizi MA, et al. The assessment of affective disorders in children and adolescents by semistructured interview: test–retest reliability of the schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia for school-age children, present episode version. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1985;42(7):696–702.
Doucette S, Levy A, Flowerdew G, Horrocks J, Grof P, Ellenbogen M, et al. Early parent–child relationships and risk of mood disorder in a Canadian sample of offspring of a parent with bipolar disorder: findings from a 16-year prospective cohort study. Early Interv Psychiatry. 2016;10(5):381–9.
Eun JD, Paksarian D, He JP, Merikangas KR. Parenting style and mental disorders in a nationally representative sample of US adolescents. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2018;53(1):11–20.
Frissa S, Hatch SL, Fear NT, Dorrington S, Goodwin L, Hotopf M. Challenges in the retrospective assessment of trauma: comparing a checklist approach to a single item trauma experience screening question. BMC Psychiatry. 2016;16:20.
Goldstein BI, Shamseddeen W, Axelson DA, Kalas C, Monk K, Brent DA, et al. Clinical, demographic, and familial correlates of bipolar spectrum disorders among offspring of parents with bipolar disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2010;49(4):388–96.
Hillegers MH, Burger H, Wals M, Reichart CG, Verhulst FC, Nolen WA, et al. Impact of stressful life events, familial loading and their interaction on the onset of mood disorders: study in a highrisk cohort of adolescent offspring of parents with bipolar disorder. Br J Psychiatry 2004;185:97–101.
Hollingshead AB. Four factor index of social status. New Haven: Yale University Press; 1975.
Iacono V, Beaulieu L, Hodgins S, Ellenbogen MA. Parenting practices in middle childhood mediate the relation between growing up with a parent having bipolar disorder and offspring psychopathology from childhood into early adulthood. Dev Psychopathol. 2017;30:1–15.
Johnson JG, Cohen P, Kasen S, Smailes E, Brook JS. Association of maladaptive parental behavior with psychiatric disorder among parents and their offspring. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001;58(5):453–60.
Kemner SM, Mesman E, Nolen WA, Eijckemans MJ, Hillegers MH. The role of life events and psychological factors in the onset of first and recurrent mood episodes in bipolar offspring: results from the Dutch bipolar offspring study. Psychol Med. 2015;45(12):2571–81.
Kendler KS, Ohlsson H, Sundquist J, Sundquist K. An extended swedish national adoption study of bipolar disorder illness and cross-generational familial association with schizophrenia and major depression. JAMA Psychiatry. 2020a;77(8):814–22.
Kendler KS, Ohlsson H, Sundquist J, Sundquist K. The rearing environment and risk for major depression: a Swedish national high-risk home-reared and adopted-away co-sibling control study. Am J Psychiatry. 2020b;177(5):447–53.
Koenders MA, Mesman E, Giltay EJ, Elzinga BM, Hillegers MHJ. Traumatic experiences, family functioning, and mood disorder development in bipolar offspring. Br J Clin Psychol. 2020;59(3):277–89.
Lau P, Hawes DJ, Hunt C, Frankland A, Roberts G, Wright A, et al. Family environment and psychopathology in offspring of parents with bipolar disorder. J Affect Disord. 2018;226:12–20.
Leckman JF, Sholomskas D, Thompson WD, Belanger A, Weissman MM. Best estimate of lifetime psychiatric diagnosis: a methodological study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1982;39(8):879–83.
MacKinnon DP, Krull JL, Lockwood CM. Equivalence of the mediation, confounding and suppression effect. Prev Sci. 2000;1(4):173–81.
Menculini G, Balducci PM, Attademo L, Bernardini F, Moretti P, Tortorella A. Environmental risk factors for bipolar disorders and high-risk states in adolescence: a systematic review. Medicina (Kaunas). 2020;56(12):689.
Merikangas KR, Cui L, Heaton L, Nakamura E, Roca C, Ding J, et al. Independence of familial transmission of mania and depression: results of the NIMH family study of affective spectrum disorders. Mol Psychiatry. 2014;19(2):214–9.
Najman JM, Plotnikova M, Williams GM, Alati R, Mamun AA, Scott J, et al. Maternal depression and family adversity: linked pathways to offspring depression? J Psychiatr Res. 2017;88:97–104.
Nurnberger JI Jr, Blehar MC, Kaufmann CA, York-Cooler C, Simpson SG, Harkavy-Friedman J, et al. Diagnostic interview for genetic studies: rationale, unique features, and training. NIMH genetics initiative. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1994;51(11):849–59 (discussion 863–864).
Olson DH, Portner J, Lavee Y. FACES III. Family social science. St. Paul: University of Minnesota; 1985.
Orvaschel H, Puig-Antich J, Chambers W, Tabrizi MA, Johnson R. Retrospective assessment of prepubertal major depression with the Kiddie-SADS-E. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1982;21(4):392–7.
Palmier-Claus JE, Berry K, Bucci S, Mansell W, Varese F. Relationship between childhood adversity and bipolar affective disorder: systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry. 2016;209(6):454–9.
Parker G, Tupling H, Brown LB. A parental bonding instrument. Br J Med Psychol. 1979;52:1–10.
Post RM, Altshuler LL, Kupka R, McElroy SL, Frye MA, Rowe M, et al. Age of onset of bipolar disorder: combined effect of childhood adversity and familial loading of psychiatric disorders. J Psychiatr Res. 2016;81:63–70.
Preisig M, Fenton BT, Matthey ML, Berney A, Ferrero F. Diagnostic interview for genetic studies (DIGS): inter-rater and test–retest reliability of the French version. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1999;249(4):174–9.
Preisig M, Strippoli MP, Castelao E, Merikangas KR, Gholam-Rezaee M, Marquet P, et al. The specificity of the familial aggregation of early-onset bipolar disorder: a controlled 10-year follow-up study of offspring of parents with mood disorders. J Affect Disord. 2016;190:26–33.
Rice F, Riglin L, Thapar AK, Heron J, Anney R, O’Donovan MC, et al. Characterizing developmental trajectories and the role of neuropsychiatric genetic risk variants in early-onset depression. JAMA Psychiatry. 2019;76(3):306–13.
Rothen S, Vandeleur CL, Lustenberger Y, Jeanpretre N, Ayer E, Gamma F, et al. Parent–child agreement and prevalence estimates of diagnoses in childhood: direct interview versus family history method. Int J Methods Psychiatr Res. 2009;18(2):96–109.
Shalev A, Merranko J, Goldstein T, Miklowitz DJ, Axelson D, Goldstein BI, et al. A longitudinal study of family functioning in offspring of parents diagnosed with bipolar disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2019;58(10):961–70.
Stapp EK, Mendelson T, Merikangas KR, Wilcox HC. Parental bipolar disorder, family environment, and offspring psychiatric disorders: a systematic review. J Affect Disord. 2020a;268:69–81.
Stapp EK, Williams SC, Kalb LG, Holingue CB, Van Eck K, Ballard ED, et al. Mood disorders, childhood maltreatment, and medical morbidity in US adults: an observational study. J Psychosom Res. 2020b;137: 110207.
Stekhoven DJ, Buhlmann P. MissForest—non-parametric missing value imputation for mixed-type data. Bioinformatics. 2012;28(1):112–8.
Tercier D, Vandeleur C, Jeanprêtre N, Rothen S, Vidal S, Halfon O, et al. Parent–offspring similarity for childhood behavioral inhibition and associations between inhibition and parental care. Family Sci. 2011;2(4):230–9.
Therneau TM, Grambsch PM, Pankratz VS. Penalized survival models and frailty. J Comput Graph Stat. 2003;12(1):156–75.
Vandeleur CL, Preisig M, Fenton BT, Ferrero F. Validation of a French version of FACES-III in adolescents and adults. Swiss J Psychol. 1999;58:161–9.
Vandeleur C, Rothen S, Gholam-Rezaee M, Castelao E, Vidal S, Favre S, et al. Mental disorders in offspring of parents with bipolar and major depressive disorders. Bipolar Disord. 2012;14(6):641–53.
Vandeleur CL, Merikangas KR, Strippoli MP, Castelao E, Preisig M. Specificity of psychosis, mania and major depression in a contemporary family study. Mol Psychiatry. 2014;19(2):209–13.
Vandeleur CL, Rothen S, Lustenberger Y, Glaus J, Castelao E, Preisig M. Inter-informant agreement and prevalence estimates for mood syndromes: direct interview vs. family history method. J Affect Disord. 2015;171:120–7.
Vandeleur CL, Strippoli MF, Castelao E, Gholam-Rezaee M, Ferrero F, Marquet P, et al. The Lausanne–Geneva cohort study of offspring of parents with mood disorders: methodology, findings, current sample characteristics, and perspectives. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2017;52(8):1041–58.
Weissman MM, Warner V, Wickramaratne P, Prusoff BA. Early-onset major depression in parents and their children. J Affect Disord. 1988;15(3):269–77.
Wilson S, Vaidyanathan U, Miller MB, McGue M, Iacono WG. Premorbid risk factors for major depressive disorder: are they associated with early onset and recurrent course? Dev Psychopathol. 2014;26(4 Pt 2):1477–93.
Zimmermann P, Bruckl T, Lieb R, Nocon A, Ising M, Beesdo K, et al. The interplay of familial depression liability and adverse events in predicting the first onset of depression during a 10-year follow-up. Biol Psychiatry. 2008;63(4):406–14.