Employee Health and Presenteeism: A Systematic Review

United States Depart of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Employment Situation Summary. Available at: http://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.nr0.htm Accessed May 2006.

Edington, D. W. (1983) Models of validity. Corporate Fitness and Recreation, 2, 44.

Edington, D. W., Yen, L., & Braunstein, A. (1999). The reliability and validity of HRAs. In G. C. Hyner, K. W. Peterson, J. W. Travis, H. E. Dewey, J. J. Foerster, & E. M. Framer (Eds.), SPM handbook of health assessment tools (pp. 135–141). Pittsburgh: Society of Prospective Medicine and Institute for Health Productivity Management.

Lasco, R., Moriarty, D., & Nelson, C. F. (1984). CDC health risk appraisal user manual. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control, US Government Printing Office.

Terry, P., Anderson, D. R., & Serxner, S. (1999). Health assessment at the worksite. In G. C. Hyner, K. W. Peterson, J. W. Travis, H. E. Dewey, J. J. Foerster, & E. M. Framer (Eds.), SPM handbook of health assessment tools (pp. 207–216). Pittsburgh: Society of Prospective Medicine and Institute for Health Productivity Management.

Vickery, D., Golaszewski, T., Wright, E., & McPhee, L. (1986). Lifestyle and organizational health insurance costs. Journal of Occupational Medicine, 28, 1165–1168.

Yen, L. T., Edington, D. W., & Witting, P. (1991). Associations between employee health-related measures and prospective medical insurance costs in a manufacturing company. American Journal of Health Promotion, 6, 46–54.

Golaszewski, T., Lynch, W., Clearie, A., & Vickery, D. (1989). The relationship between retrospective health insurance claims and a health risk appraisal-generated measure of health status. Journal of Occupational Medicine, 31, 262–264.

Goetzel, R. Z., Anderson, D. R., Whitmer, R. W., Ozminkowski, R. J., Dunn, R. L., & Wasserman, J. (1998). The relationship between modifiable health risks and health care expenditures: An analysis of the multi-employer HERO health risk and cost database. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 40, 843–854.

Yen, L., Edington, D., & Witting, P. (1992). Predictions of prospective medical claims and absenteeism costs for 1284 hourly workers from a manufacturing company. Journal of Occupational Medicine, 34, 428–435.

Wright, D. W., Beard, M. J., & Edington, D. W. (2002) Association of health risks with the cost of time away from work. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 44, 1126–1134.

Aldana, S. G., & Pronk, N. P. (2001). Health promotion programs, modifiable health risks, and employee absenteeism. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 43, 36–46.

Schultz, A. B., Lu, C., Barnett, T. E., Yen, L. T., McDonald, T., Hirschland, D., & Edington, D. W. (2002). Influence of participation in a worksite health promotion program on disability days. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 44, 776–780.

Musich, S., Napier, D., & Edington, D. W. (2001). The association of health risks with workers’ compensation costs. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 43, 534–541.

Roberts, S. (2005). New approach addresses root causes of illnesses. Business Insurance, 39(9), 11, 22 (February 28).

Burton, W. N., Conti, D. H., Chen, C. Y., Schultz, A. B., & Edington, D. W. (1999) The role of health risk factors and disease on worker productivity. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 41, 863–877.

Hemp, P. (2004). Presenteeism: At work—but out of it. Harvard Business Review, 82, 49–58.

Stewart, W. F., Ricci, J. A., Chee, E., & Morganstein, D. (2003). Lost productive work time costs from health conditions in the United States: Results from the American Productivity Audit. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 45, 1234–1246.

Berger, M. L., Howell, R., Nicholson, S., & Sharda, C. (2003). Investing in healthy human capital. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 45, 1213–1225.

Cockburn, I. M., Bailit, A. L., Berndt, E. R., & Finkelstein, S. N. (1999). Loss of work productivity due to illness and medical treatment. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 41, 948–953.

Burton, W., Conti, D., Chen, C., Schultz, A. B., & Edington, D. W. (2001). The impact of allergies and allergy treatment on worker productivity. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 43, 64–71.

Lofland, J. H., Pizzi, L., & Frick, K. D. (2004). A review of health-related workplace productivity loss instruments. Pharmacoeconomics, 22, 165–184.

Prasad, M., Wahlqvist, P., Shikiar, R., & Shih, Y. T. (2004). A review of self-report instruments measuring health-related work productivity. Pharmacoeconomics, 22, 225–244.

Ricci, J. A., Stewart, W. F., Leotta, C., & Chee, E. (2001). A comparison of six phone interviews designed to measure health-related lost productive work time. Value Health, 4, 460.

Stewart, W. F., Ricci, J. A., Leotta, C., & Chee, E. (2001). Self-report of health-related lost productive time at work: Bias and the optimal recall period. Value Health, 4, 421.

Allen, H. M. Jr., & Bunn, W. B. 3rd (2003). Using self-report and adverse event measures to track health’s impact on productivity in known groups. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 45, 973–983.

Allen, H. M. Jr., & Bunn, W. B. 3rd (2003). Validating self-reported measures of productivity at work: A case for their credibility in a heavy manufacturing setting. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 45, 926–940.

Ozminkowski, R. J., Goetzel, R. Z., Chang, S., & Long, S. (2004). The application of two health and productivity instruments at a large employer. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 46, 635–648.

Lerner, D., Amick, B. C., Rogers, W. H., Malspeis, S., Bungay, K., & Cynn, D. (2001). The work limitations questionnaire. Medical Care, 39, 72–85.

Lerner, D., Amick, B. C., Lee, J. C., Rooney, T., Rogers, W. H., Chang, H., & Berndt, E. R. (2003). Relationship of employee-reported work limitations to work productivity. Medical Care, 41, 649–659.

Lerner, D., Adler, D. A., Chang, H., Berndt, E. R., Irish, J. T., Lapitsky, L., Hood, M. Y., Reed, J., & Rogers, W. H. (2004). The clinical and occupational correlates of work productivity loss among employed patients with depression. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 46, S46–S55.

Lerner, D., Reed, J. L., Massarotti, E., Wester, L. M., & Burke, T. A. (2002). The work limitations questionnaire’s validity and reliability among patients with osteoarthritis. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 55, 197–208.

Schmitt J. M., & Ford D. E. (2006). Work limitations and productivity loss are associated with health-related quality of life but not with clinical severity in patients with psoriasis. Dermatology, 213, 102–110.

Walker, N., Michaud, K., & Wolfe, F. (2005). Work limitations among working persons with rheumatoid arthritis: Results, reliability, and validity of the work limitations questionnaire in 836 patients. Journal of Rheumatology, 32, 980–982.

Kessler, R., Barber, C., Beck, A., Berglund, P., Cleary, P. D., McKenas, D., Pronk, N., Simon, G., Stang, P., Ustun, T. B., & Wang, P. (2003). The World Health Organization health and work performance questionnaire (HPQ). Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 45, 156–174.

Kessler, R. C., Ames, M., Hymel, P. A., Loeppke, R., McKenas, D. K., Richling, D. E., Stang, P. E., & Ustun, T. D. (2004). Using the World Health Organization Health and Work Performance Questionnaire (HPQ) to evaluate the indirect workplace costs of illness. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 46, S23–S37.

Kessler, R. C. (2006). HPQ information and survey versions. Available at: http://www.hcp.med.harvard.edu/hpq/info.php . Accessed October 2006.

Goetzel, R. Z., Ozminkowski, R. J., & Long, S. R. (2003). Development and reliability analysis of the Work Productivity Short Inventory (WPSI) instrument measuring employee health and productivity. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 45, 743–762.

Ozminkowski, R. J., Goetzel, R. Z., & Long, S. R. (2003). A validity analysis of the Work Productivity Short Inventory (WPSI) instrument measuring employee health and productivity. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 45, 1183–1195.

Koopman, C., Pelletier, K. R., Murray, J. F., Sharda, C. E., Berger, M. L., Turpin, R. S., Hackleman, P., Gibson, P., Holmes, D. M., & Bendel, T. (2002). Stanford presenteeism scale: Health status and employee productivity. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 44, 14–20.

Turpin, R. S., Ozminkowski, R. J., Sharda, C. E., Collins, J. J., Berger, M. L., Billotti, G. M., Baase, C. M., Olson, M. J., & Nicholson, S. (2004). Reliability and validity of the Stanford presenteeism scale. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 46, 1123–1133.

Stewart, W. F., Ricci, J. A., Leotta, C., & Chee, E. (2004). Validation of the work and health interview. Pharmacoeconomics, 22, 1127–1140.

van Roijen, L., Essink-Bot, M. L., Koopmanschap, M. A., Bonsel, G., & Rutten, F. F. (1996). Labor and health status in economic evaluation of health care. The health and labor questionnaire. International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care, 12, 405–415.

Reilly, M. C., Zbrozek, A. S., & Dukes, E. M. (1993). The validity and reproducibility of a work productivity and activity impairment instrument. Pharmacoeconomics, 4, 353–365.

Wahlqvist, P., Carlsson, J., Stalhammar, N. O., & Wiklund, I. (2002). Validity of a work productivity and activity impairment questionnaire for patients with symptoms of gastroesophageal reflux disease (WPAI-GERD): Results from a cross sectional study. Value Health, 5, 106–113.

Reilly, M. C., Bracco, A., Ricci, L.-F., Santoro, J., & Stevens, T. (2004). The validity and accuracy of the work productivity and activity impairment questionnaire—irritable bowel syndrome version (WPAI:IBS). Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 20, 459–467.

Croog, S., Sudilovsky, A., Levince, S., & Testa, M. (1987). Work performance, absenteeism and antihypertensive medication. Journal of Hypertension, 5, S47–S54.

Endicott, J., & Nee, J. (1997). Endicott Work Productivity Scales (EWPS): A new measure to assess treatment effects. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 33, 13–16.

Kumar, R. N., Hass, S. L., Li, J. Z., Nickens, D. J., Daenzer, C. L., & Wathen, L. K. (2003). Validation of the Health-Related Productivity Questionnaire Diary (HRPQ-D) on a sample of patients with infectious mononucleosis: Results from a phase 1 multicenter clinical trial. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 45, 899–907.

Lerner, D., Amick, B., Malspeis, S., Rogers, W. H., Gomes, D. R., & Salem, D. N. (1998). The angina-related limitations at work questionnaire. Quality of Life Research, 7, 23–32.

Meerding, W. J., Ijzelenberg, W., Koopmanschap, M. A., Severens, J. L., & Burdorf, A. (2005). Health problems lead to considerable productivity loss at work among workers with high physical load jobs. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 58, 517–523.

Wolfe, F., Michaud, K., & Pincus, T. (2004). Development and validation of the health assessment questionnaire II. Arthritis and Rheumatism, 50, 3296–3305.

Burton, W. N., Pransky, G, Conti, D. J., Chen, C.-Y., Edington, D. W. (2004). The association of medical conditions and presenteeism. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 46, S38–S45.

Burton, W. N., Chen, C. Y., Conti, D. J., Schultz, A. B., Pransky, G., & Edington, D. W. (2005). The association of health risks with on-the-job productivity. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 47, 769–777.

Burton, W. N., Chen, C. Y., Conti, D. J., Schultz, A. B., & Edington, D. W. (2006). The association between health risk change and presenteeism change. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 48, 252–263.

Evans, C. J. (2004). Health and work productivity assessment: State of the art or state of flux? Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 46, S3–S11.

Loeppke, R., Hymel, P. A., Lofland, J. H., Pizzi, L. T., Konicki, D. L., Anstadt, G. W., Baase, C., Fortuna, J., & Scharf, T. (2003). Health-related workplace productivity measurement: General and migraine-specific recommendations from the ACOEM expert panel. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 45, 349–359.

Collins, J. J., Baase, C. M., Sharda, C. E., Ozminkowski, R. J., Nicholson, S., Billotti, G. M., Turpin, R. S., Olson, M., & Berger, M. L. (2005). The assessment of chronic health conditions on work performance, absence and total economic impact for employers. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 47, 547–557.

Goetzel, R. Z., Long, S. R., Ozminkowski, R. J., Hawkins, K., Wang, S., & Lynch, W. (2004). Health, absence, disability, and presenteeism cost estimates of certain physical and mental health conditions affecting US employers. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 46, 398–412.

Kessler, R. C., Greenberg, P. E., Mickelson, K. D., Meneades, L. M., & Wang, P. S. (2001). The effects of chronic medical conditions on work loss and work cutback. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 43, 218–225.

Lerner, D., Amick, B. C. III, Malspeis, S., & Rogers, W. H. (2000). A national survey of health-related work limitations among employed persons in the United States. Journal of Disability and Rehabiliation Research, 23, 225–232.

Munir, F., Jones, D., Leka, S., & Griffiths, A. (2005). Work limitations and employer adjustments for employees with chronic illness. International Journal of Rehabilitation Research, 28, 111–117.

Wang, P. S., Beck, A., Berglund, P., Leutzinger, J. A., Pronk, N., Richling, D., Schenk, T. W., Simon, G., Stang, P., Ustun, T. B., & Kessler, R. C. (2003). Chronic medical conditions and work performance in the health and work performance questionnaire calibration surveys. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 45, 1303–1311.

Bunn, W. B. 3rd, Pikelny, D. B., Paralkar, S., Slavin, T., Borden, S., & Allen, H. M. Jr. (2003). The burden of allergies—and the capacity of medications to reduce this burden—in a heavy manufacturing environment. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 45, 941–955.

Lamb, C. E., Ratner, P. H., Johnson, C. E., Ambegaonkar, A. J., Joshi, A. V., Day, D., Sampson, N., & Eng, B. (2006). Economic impact of workplace productivity losses due to allergic rhinitis compared with select medical conditions in the United States from an employer perspective. Current Medical Research and Opinion, 22, 1203–1210.

Backman, C. L. (2004). Employment and work disability in rheumatoid arthritis. Current Opinion in Rheumatology, 16, 148–152.

Burton, W., Morrison, A., Maclean, R., & Ruderman, E. (2006). Systematic review of studies of productivity loss due to rheumatoid arthritis. Occupational Medicine, 56, 18–27.

Burton, W. N., Chen, C. Y., Schultz, A. B., Conti, D. J., Pransky, G., & Edington, D. W. (2006). Worker productivity loss associated with arthritis. Disease Management, 9, 131–143.

Muchmore, L., Lynch, W. D., Gardner, H. H., Williamson, T., & Burke, T. (2003). Prevalence of arthritis and associated joint disorders in an employed population and the associated heatlthcare, sick leave, disability, and workers’ compensation benefits cost and productivity loss for employers. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 45, 369–378.

Ricci, J. A., Stewart, W. F., Chee, E., Leotta, C., Foley, K., & Hochberg, M. C. (2005). Pain exacerbation as a major source of lost productive time in US workers with arthritis. Arthritis and Rheumatism, 53, 673–681.

Allen, H., Hubbard, D., & Sullivan, S. (2005). The burden of pain on employee health and productivity at a major provider of business services. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 47, 658–670.

Stewart, W., Ricci, J., Chee, E., Morganstein, D., & Lipton, R. (2003). Lost productive time and cost due to common pain conditions in the US workforce. JAMA, 290, 2443–2454.

Lavigne, J. E., Phels, C. E., Mushlin, A., & Lednar, W. (2003). Reductions in individual work productivity associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Pharmacoeconomics, 21, 1123–1134.

Tunceli, K., Bradley, C. J., Nerenz, D., Williams, L. K., Pladevall, M., Lafata, J. E. (2005). The impact of diabetes on employment and work productivity. Diabetes Care, 28, 2662–2667.

Dean, B. B., Aguilar, D., Barghout, V., Kahler, K. H., Frech, F., Groves, D., & Ofman, J. J. (2005). Impairment in work productivity and health-related quality of life in patients with IBS. American Journal of Managed Care, 11, S17–S26.

Wahlqvist, P., Reilly, M. C., & Barkun, A. (2006). Systematic review: The impact of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease on work productivity. Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 24, 259–272.

Adler, D. A., Irish, J., McLaughlin, T. J., Perissinotto, C., Chang, H., Hood, M., Lapitsky, L., Rogers, W. H., & Lerner, D. (2004). The work impact of dysthymia in a primary care population. General Hospital Psychiatry, 26, 269–276.

Adler, D. A., McLaughlin, T. J., Rogers, W. H., Chang, H., Lapitsky, L., & Lerner, D. (2006). Job performance deficits due to depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 1569–1576.

Kleinman, N. L., Brook, R. A., Rajagopalan, K., Gardner, H. H., Brizee, T. J., & Smeeding, J. E. (2005). Lost time, absence costs, and reduced productivity output for employees with bipolar disorder. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 47, 1117–1124.

Lerner, D., Adler, D. A., Chang, H., Lapitsky, L., Hood, M. Y., Perissinotto, C., Reed, J., McLaughlin, T. J., Berndt, E. R., & Rogers, W. H. (2004). Unemployment, job retention, and productivity loss among employees with depression. Psychiatric Services, 55, 1371–1378.

Hagberg, M., Wigaeus-Tornqvist, E., & Toomingas, A. (2002). Self-report reduced productivity due to musculoskeletal symptoms: Associations with workplace and individual factors among white-collar computer users. Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation, 12, 151–162.

Boles, M., Pelletier, B., & Lynch, W. (2004). The relationship between health risks and work productivity. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 46, 737–745.

Pelletier, B., Boles, M., & Lynch, W. (2004). Change in health risks and work productivity over time. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 46, 746–754.

Pronk, N. P., Martinson, B., Kessler, R. C., Beck, A. L., Simon, G. E., & Wang, P. (2004). The association between work performance and physical activity, cardiorespiratory fitness, and obesity. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 46, 19–25.

Hertz, R. P., Unger, A. N., McDonald, M., Lustik, M. B., & Biddulph-Krentar, J. (2004). The impact of obesity on work limitations and cardiovascular risk factors in the US workforce. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 46, 1196–1203.

Ricci, J. A., & Chee, E. (2005) Lost productive time associated with excess weight in the US workforce. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 47, 1227–1234.

Tunceli, K., Li, K., & Williams, L. K. (2006) Long-term effects of obesity on employment and work limitations among US adults, 1986 to 1999. Obesity, 14, 1637–1646.

Burton, W. N., Chen, C. Y., Schultz, A. B., & Edington, D. W. (1998). The economic costs associated with body mass index in a workplace. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 40, 786–792.

Kristensen, T. S. (1989). Cardiovascular diseases and the work environment: A critical review of the epidemiologic literature on nonchemical factors. Scandinavian Journal of Work Environment & Health, 15, 165–179.

Ross, R. N. (1996) The costs of allergic rhinitis. American Journal of Managed Care, 2, 285–290.

Howard, M. E., Desai, A. V., Grunstein, R. R., Hulkins, C., Armstrong, J. G., Joffe, D., Swann, P., Campbell, D. A., & Pierce, R. J. (2004). Sleepiness, sleep-disordered breathing, and accident risk factors in commercial vehicle drivers. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 170, 1014–1021.

Verbrugge, L. M., & Patrick, D. L. (1995). Seven chronic conditions: Their impact on US adults’ activity levels and use of medical services. American Journal of Public Health, 85, 173–182.

Backman, C. L., Kennedy, S. M., Chalmers, A., & Singer, J. (2004). Participation in paid and unpaid work by adults with rheumatoid arthritis. Journal of Rheumatology, 31, 47–56.

American Diabetes Association. (2003). Economic costs of diabetes in the US in 2002. Diabetes Care, 26, 917–932.

Mokdad, A. H., Ford, E. S., Bowman, B. A., Nelson, D. E., Engelgau, M. M., Vinicor, F., & Marks, J. S. (2001). The continuing increase of diabetes in the US Diabetes Care, 24, 412.

Sandler, R. S., Everhart, J. E., Donowitz, M., et al. (2002). The burden of selected digestive diseases in the United States. Gastroenterology, 122, 1500–1511.

Kessler, R. C., Chiu, W. T., Demler, O., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of twelve-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 617–627.

Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Koretz, D., Merikangas, K. R., Rush, A. J., Walters, E. E., & Wang, P. S. (2003). The epidemiology of major depressive disorder: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). JAMA, 289, 3095–3105.

Stewart, W. F., Ricci, J. A., Chee, E., Hahn, S. R., & Morganstein, D. (2003). Cost of lost productive work time among US workers with depression. JAMA, 289, 3135–3144.

Narrow, W. E., Rae, D. S., Robins, L. N., & Regier, D. A. (2002). Revised prevalence estimates of mental disorders in the United States: Using a clinical significance criterion to reconcile 2 surveys’ estimates. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59, 115–123.

Langleib, A. M., & Kahn, J. P. (2005) How much does quality mental health care profit employers? Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 47, 1099–1109.

Beaton, D. E., & Kennedy, C. A. (2005). Beyond return to work: Testing a measure of at-work disability in workers with musculoskeletal pain. Quality of Life Research, 14, 1869–1879.

Stewart, W. F., Ricci, J. A., & Leotta, C. (2004). Health-related lost productive time (LPT): Recall interval and bias in LPT estimates. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 46, S12–S22.

Kivimaki, M., Head, J., Ferrie, J. E., Hemingway, H., Shipley, M. J., Vahtera, J., & Marmot, M. G. (2005). Working while ill is a risk factor for serious coronary events: The Whitehall II study. American Journal of Public Health, 95, 98–102.

Aronsson, G., & Gustafsson, K. (2005). Sickness presenteeism: Prevalence, attendance-pressure factors, and an outline of a model for research. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 47, 958–966.

Edington, D. W., Yen, L. T., & Witting, P. (1997). The financial impact of changes in personal health practices. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 39, 1037–1046.

Yen, L., Edington, D., & Witting, P. (1992). Predictions of prospective medical claims and absenteeism costs for 1284 hourly workers from a manufacturing company. Journal of Occupational Medicine, 34, 428–435.

Lean, M., Han, T., & Seidell, J. (1999). Impairment of health and quality of life using new US federal guidelines for the identification of obesity. Archives of Internal Medicine, 159, 837–843.

Katz, D., McHorney, C., & Atkinson, R. (2000). Impact of obesity on health-related quality of life in patients with chronic illness. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 15, 789–796.

Leveille, S. G., Wee, C. C., & Iezzoni, L. I. (2005). Trends in obesity and arthritis among baby boomers and their predecessors, 1971–2002. American Journal of Public Health, 95, 1607–1613.

Voigt, L. F., Koepsell, T. D., Nelson, J. L., Dugowson, C. E., & Daling, J. R. (1994). Smoking, obesity, alcohol consumption, and the risk of rheumatoid arthritis. Epidemiology, 5, 525–532.

Thompson, D., Edelsberg, J., Kinsey, K. L., & Oster, G. (1998). Estimated economic costs of obesity to US Business. American Journal of Health Promotion, 13, 120–127.

Mokdad, A. H., Bowman, B., Ford, E., Vinicor, F., Marks, J. S., & Koplan, J. P. (2001). The continuing epidemics of obesity and diabetes in the United States. JAMA, 286, 1195–1200.

Ganz, M. (2003). The economic evaluation of obesity interventions: Its time has come. Obesity Research, 11, 1275–1277.

National Center for Health Statistics. Summary health statistics for US adults: National Health Interview Survey, 2002: Data from the National Health Interview Survey. July 2004.

Lakdawalla, D. N., Bhattacharya, J., & Goldman, D. P. (2004). Are the young becoming more disabled? Health Affairs, 23, 168–176.

Bijnen, F. C., Caspersen, C. J., Feskens, E. J., et al. (1998) Physical activity and 10-year mortality from cardiovascular diseases and all causes. Archives of Internal Medicine, 158, 1499–1505.

Rakowski, W., & Mor, V. (1992). The association of physical activity with mortality among older adults in the Longitudinal Study of Aging (1984–1988). Journal of Gerontology, 47, M122–M129.

Burton, W. N., McCalister, K. T., Chen, C. Y., & Edington, D. W. (2005). The association of health status, worksite fitness center participation, and two measures of productivity. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 47, 343–351.

Burton, W. N., Morrison, A., & Wertheimer, A. I. (2003). Pharmaceuticals and worker productivity loss: A critical review of the literature. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 45, 610–621.

Stewart, W. F., Lipton, R. B., Celentano, D. D., & Reed, M. L. (1992). Prevalence of migraine headache in the United States. Relation to age, income, race, and other sociodemographic factors. JAMA, 267, 64–69.

Hu, X. H., Markson, L. E., Lipton, R. B., Stewart, W. F., & Berger, M. L. (1999). Burden of migraine in the United States: Disability and economic costs. Archives of Internal Medicine, 159, 813–818.

Schwartz, B. S., Stewart, W. F., & Lipton, R. B. (1997). Lost workdays and decreased work effectiveness associated with headache in the workplace. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 39, 320–327.

Gerth, W. C., Sarma, S., Hu, X. H., & Silberstein, S. D. (2004). Productivity cost benefit to employers of treating migraine with Rizatriptan: A specific worksite analysis and model. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 46, 48–54.

Kwong, W. J., Taylor, F. R., & Adelman, J. U. (2005). The effect of early intervention with sumatriptan tablets on migraine-associated productivity loss. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 47, 1167–1173.

Weaver, M. B., Mackowiak, J. I., & Solari, P. G. (2004). Triptan therapy impacts health and productivity. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 46, 812–817.

Meltzer, E. O., Casale, T. B., Nathan, R. A., & Thompson, A. K. (1999). Once-daily fexofenadine HCl improves quality of life and reduces work and activity impairment in patients with seasonal allergic rhinitis. Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology, 83, 311–317.

Reilly, M. C., Barghout, V., McBurney, C. R., & Niecko, T. E. (2005). Effect of tegaserod on work and daily activity in irritable bowel syndrome with constipation. Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 22, 373–380.

Koopmanschap, M., Burdorf, A., Jacob, K., Meerding, W. J., Brouwer, W., & Severens, H. (2005). Measuring productivity changes in economic evaluation: Setting the research agenda. Pharmacoeconomics, 23, 47–54.

Lerner, D., Allaire, S. H., & Reisine, S. T. (2005). Work disability resulting from chronic health conditions. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 47, 253–264.

Pilette, P. C. (2005) Presenteeism in nursing: A clear and present danger to productivity. Journal of Nursing Administration, 35, 300–303.

Middaugh, D. J. (2006) Presenteeism: Sick and tired at work. Medsurg Nursing, 15, 103–105.

Whitehouse, D. (2005). Workplace presenteeism: How behavioral professionals can make a difference. Behavioral Healthcare Tomorrow, 14, 32–35.

Ruez, P. (2004). Quality and bottom-line can suffer at the hands of the ‘working sick’. Managed Healthcare Executive, 14, 46, 48.

Sullivan, S. (2004). Making the business case for health and productivity management. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 46, S56–S61.

Sullivan, S. (2005). Promoting health and productivity for depressed patients in the workplace. Journal of Managed Care Pharmacy, 11, S2–S5.

Lichtenberg, F. R. (2005). Availability of new drugs and Americans’ ability to work. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 47, 373–380.

Burton, W. N., & Conti, D. J. (1999). The real measure of productivity. Business & Health, 17, 34–36.

Mattke, S., Balakrishnan, A., Bergamo, G., & Newberry, S. J. (2007). A review of methods to measure health-related productivity loss. American Journal of Managed Care, 13, 211–217.