Emotion Ideology Mediates Effects of Risk Factors on Alexithymia Development

Emily R. Edwards1,2, Anna Micek1, Karen Mottarella3, Peggilee Wupperman1
1Department of Psychology, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, New York, USA
2Department of Psychology, CUNY Graduate Center, New York, USA
3Department of Psychology, University of Central Florida, Orlando, USA

Tóm tắt

Despite its connection to mental and behavioral health complications, elevated alexithymia tends to be associated with low responsiveness and high resistance to psychological intervention. To further understanding of potential treatment targets for clients with alexithymic traits, the present study explored the (a) independent contributions of various risk factors to statistical predictions of alexithymic trait severity, (b) generalizability of risk factor contributions across two culturally distinct samples, and (c) potential for emotion ideology (i.e., beliefs about emotion and emotional experience) to mediate such contributions. Preliminary results suggest emotion socialization and child abuse may be salient contributors to alexithymia severity, whereas effects of trauma exposure may be limited to samples with high overall exposure to alexithymia risk-factors. Moreover, emotion ideology mediates the relation between risk-factor exposure and alexithymia severity. Thus, psychotherapeutic interventions targeting emotion ideology may be beneficial when working with clients with elevated alexithymia.

Từ khóa


Tài liệu tham khảo

Aust, S., Alkan Härtwig, E., Heuser, I., & Bajbouj, M. (2012). The role of early emotional neglect in alexithymia. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 5(3), 225–232. Bagby, R. M., Ayearst, L. E., Morariu, R. A., Watters, C., & Taylor, G. J. (2014). The internet administration version of the 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale. Psychological Assessment, 26(1), 16–22. Bagby, R. M., Parker, J. D., & Taylor, G. J. (1994a). The twenty-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale—I. Item selection and cross-validation of the factor structure. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 38(1), 23–32. Bagby, R. M., Taylor, G. J., & Parker, J. D. (1994b). The twenty-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale–II. Convergent, discriminant, and concurrent validity. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 38(1), 33–40. Batmaz, S., & Özdel, K. (2015). Psychometric properties of the Turkish version of the Leahy Emotional Schema Scale-II. Anatolian Journal of Psychiatry, 16, 23–30. Batmaz, S., Ulusoy Kaymak, S., Kocbiyik, S., & Turkcapar, M. H. (2014). Metacognitions and emotional schemas: A new cognitive perspective for the distinction between unipolar and bipolar depression. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 55(7), 1546–1555. Berenbaum, H., & James, T. (1994). Correlates and retrospectively reported antecedents of alexithymia. Psychosomatic Medicine, 56(4), 353–359. Berger, J. M., Levant, R., McMillan, K. K., Kelleher, W., & Sellers, A. (2005). Impact of gender role conflict, traditional masculinity ideology, alexithymia, and age on men’s attitudes toward psychological help seeking. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 6(1), 73–78. Berrocal, C., Pennato, T., & Bernini, O. (2009). Relating coping, fear of uncertainty and alexithymia with psychological distress: The mediating role of experiential avoidance. Journal of Cognitive and Behavioral Psychotherapies, 9(2), 149–159. Bonanno, G. A., & Singer, J. L. (1990). Repressive personality style: Theoretical and methodological implications for health and pathology. In J. L. Singer (Ed.), Repression and dissociation: Implications for personality theory, psychopathology, and health (pp. 435–470). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Carano, A., De Berardis, D., Gambi, F., Di Paolo, C., Campanella, D., Pelusi, L., et al. (2006). Alexithymia and body image in adult outpatients with binge eating disorder. The International Journal of Eating Disorders, 39, 332–340. Cloitre, M., Cohen, L. R., & Koenen, K. C. (2011). Treating survivors of childhood abuse: Psychotherapy for the interrupted life. New York: Guilford Press. Cloitre, M., Scarvalone, P., & Difede, J. (1997). Posttraumatic stress disorder, self- and interpersonal dysfunction among sexually retraumatized women. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 10(3), 437–452. Conrad, R., Wegener, I., Imbierowicz, K., Liedtke, R., & Geiser, F. (2009). Alexithymia, temperament and character as predictors of psychopathology in patients with major depression. Psychiatry Research, 165(1–2), 137–144. Congressional Record. (2015). Recognizing John Jay College of Criminal Justice. In 114th Congress, 1st Session, (Vol. 161, No. 63, pp. S2524–S2525). Corstorphine, E. (2006). Cognitive–emotional–behavioural therapy for the eating disorders: Working with beliefs about emotions. European Eating Disorders Review, 14, 448–461. Cunningham, J. N., Kliewer, W., & Garner, P. W. (2009). Emotion socialization, child emotion understanding and regulation, and adjustment in urban African American families: Differential associations across child gender. Development and Psychopathology, 21(1), 261–283. Darrow, S. M., & Follette, W. C. (2014). A behavior analytic interpretation of alexithymia. Journal of Contextual Behavior Science, 3(2), 98–108. De Berardis, D., Campanella, D., Gambi, F., Sepede, G., Salini, G., Carano, A., et al. (2005). Insight and alexithymia in adult outpatients with obsessive–compulsive disorder. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 255(5), 350–358. de Haan, H. A., Schellekens, A. F. A., van der Palen, J., Verkes, R. J., Buitelaar, J. K., & De Jong, C. A. J. (2012). The level of alexithymia in alcohol-dependent patients does not influence outcomes after inpatient treatment. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 38(4), 299–304. de la Fuente Arias, M., Justo, C. F., & Granados, M. S. (2010). Efectos de un programa de meditación (mindfulness) en la medida de la alexitimia y las habilidades sociales [Effects of a program of meditation (mindfulness) on the extent of alexithymia and social skills]. Psicothema, 22(3), 369–375. Declercq, F., Vanheule, S., & Deheeger, J. (2010). Alexithymia and posttraumatic stress: Subscales and symptom clusters. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 66(10), 1076–1089. Denham, S. A., Mitchell-Copeland, J., Strandberg, K., Auerbach, S., & Blair, K. (1997). Parental contributions to preschoolers’ emotional competence: Direct and indirect effects. Motivation and Emotion, 21(1), 65–86. Devine, H., Stewart, S. H., & Watt, M. C. (1999). Relations between anxiety sensitivity and dimensions of alexithymia in a young adult sample. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 47(2), 145–158. Eichhorn, S., Brahler, E., Franz, M., Friedrich, M., & Glaesmer, H. (2014). Traumatic experiences, alexithymia, and posttraumatic symptomatology: A cross-sectional population-based study in Germany. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 5(23870), 1–10. Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., & Spinrad, T. L. (1998). Parental socialization of emotions. Psychological Inquiry, 9(4), 241–273. Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Carlo, G., Troyer, D., Speer, A. L., Karbon, M., et al. (1992). The relations of maternal practices and characteristics to children’s vicarious emotional responsiveness. Child Development, 63(3), 583–602. Ellis, A., & Dryden, W. (2007). The practice of rational emotive behavior therapy. New York: Springer Publishing Company. Evren, C., Dalbudak, E., Cetin, R., Durkaya, M., & Evren, B. (2010). Relationship of alexithymia and temperament and character dimensions with lifetime post-traumatic stress disorder in male alcohol-dependent inpatients. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 64(2), 111–119. Evren, C., Evren, B., Dalbudak, E., Ozcelik, B., & Oncu, F. (2009). Childhood abuse and neglect as a risk factor for alexithymia in adult male substance dependent inpatients. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 41, 85–92. Fischer, A. R., & Good, G. E. (1997). Men and Psychotherapy: An Investigation of alexithymia, intimacy, and masculine gender roles. Psychotherapy, 34(2), 160–170. Freeman, T. W., Roca, V., & Moore, W. M. (2000). A comparison of chronic combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) patients with and without a history of suicide attempt. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 188(7), 460–463. Frewen, P. A., Dozois, D. J. A., Neufeld, R. W. J., & Lanius, R. A. (2008). Meta-analysis of alexithymia in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 21(2), 243–246. Freyberger, H. (1977). Supportive psychotherapeutic techniques in primary and secondary alexithymia/discussion. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 28(1–4), 337–345. Fukunishi, I., Sasaki, K., Chishima, Y., Anze, M., & Saijo, M. (1996). Emotional disturbance in trauma patients during the rehabilitation phase: Studies of posttraumatic stress disorder and alexithymia. General Hospital Psychiatry, 18, 121–127. Gaher, R. M., Arens, A. M., & Shishido, H. (2015). Alexithymia as a mediator between childhood maltreatment and impulsivity. Stress and Health, 31(4), 274–280. Gaher, R. M., O’Brien, C., Smiley, P., & Hahn, A. M. (2016). Alexithymia, coping styles and traumatic stress symptoms in a sample of veterans who experienced military sexual trauma. Stress and Health, 32(1), 55–62. Gilbert, P., McEwan, K., Catarino, F., Baião, R., & Palmeira, L. (2014). Fears of happiness and compassion in relationship with depression, alexithymia, and attachment security in a depressed sample. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 53(2), 228–244. Gilbert, P., McEwan, K., Gibbons, L., Chotai, S., Duarte, J., & Matos, M. (2012). Fears of compassion and happiness in relation to alexithymia, mindfulness, and self-criticism. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 85(4), 374–390. Grabe, H. J., Frommer, J., Ankerhold, A., Ulrich, C., Gröger, R., Franke, G. H., et al. (2008). Alexithymia and outcome in psychotherapy. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 77(3), 189–194. Grabe, H. J., Spitzer, C., & Freyberger, H. J. (2004). Alexithymia and personality in relation to dimensions of psychopathology. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161(7), 1299–1301. Green, B. L. (1996). Trauma History Questionnaire. Measurement of Stress, Trauma, and Adaptation, 1, 366–369. Greenberg, L. S. (2004). Emotion-focused therapy. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 11(1), 3–16. Hayes, A. F., & Preacher, K. J. (2014). Statistical mediation analysis with a multicategorical independent variable. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 67(3), 451–470. Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., & Wilson, K. G. (1999). Acceptance and commitment therapy. New York: Guilford Press. Helmes, E., McNeill, P. D., Holden, R. R., & Jackson, C. (2008). The construct of alexithymia: Associations with defense mechanisms. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 64(3), 318–331. Hooper, L. M., Stockton, P., Krupnick, J. L., & Green, B. L. (2011). Development, use, and psychometric properties of the Trauma History Questionnaire. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 16(3), 258–283. Jørgensen, M. M., Zachariae, R., Skytthe, A., & Kyvik, K. (2007). Genetic and environmental factors in alexithymia: A population-based study of 8,785 Danish twin pairs. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 76(6), 369–375. Kench, S., & Irwin, H. J. (2000). Alexithymia and childhood family environment. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 56, 737–745. Kooiman, C. G., Spinhoven, P., & Trijsburg, R. W. (2002). The assessment of alexithymia: A critical review of the literature and a psychometric study of the Toronto Alexithymia Scale-20. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 53(6), 1083–1090. Kosten, T. R., Krystal, J. H., Giller, E. L., & Frank, J. (1992). Alexithymia as a predictor of treatment response in post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 5(4), 563–574. Krause, E. D., Mendelson, T., & Lynch, T. R. (2003). Childhood emotional invalidation and adult psychological distress: The mediating role of emotional inhibition. Child Abuse and Neglect, 27(2), 199–213. Krystal, H. (Ed.). (1968). Massive psychic trauma. New York: International Universities Press. Krystal, H. (1979). Alexithymia and psychotherapy. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 33(1), 17–31. Krystal, H. (1982). Alexithymia and the effectiveness of psychoanalytic treatment. International Journal of Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy, 9, 353–378. Krystal, H. (1997). Desomatization and the consequences of infantile psychic trauma. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 17(2), 126–150. Le, H.-N., Berenbaum, H., & Raghavan, C. (2002). Culture and alexithymia: Mean levels, correlates, and the role of parental socialization of emotions. Emotion, 2(4), 341–360. Leahy, R. L. (2002). A model of emotional schemas. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 9, 177–190. Leahy, R. L. (2012). Leahy Emotional Schemas Scale-II. Available at: http://www.cognitivetherapynyc.com/LESS2.pdf. Leahy, R. L. (2015). Emotional schema therapy. New York: Guilford Publications. Leahy, R. L., Tirch, D. D., & Melwani, P. S. (2012). Processes underlying depression: Risk aversion, emotional schemas, and psychological flexibility. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 5(4), 362–379. Levant, R. (1992). Toward the reconstruction of masculinity. Journal of Family Psychology, 5, 379–402. Levant, R. F. (1998). Desperately seeking language: Understanding, assessing, and treating normative male alexithymia. In W. S. Pollack & R. F. Levant (Eds.), The new handbook of psychology and counseling with men: A comprehensive guide to settings, problems, and treatment approaches (pp. 35–56). Hobojen, NJ: Wiley. Levant, R. F. (2001). Desperately seeking language: Understanding, assessing, and treating normative male alexithymia. In G. R. Brooks & G. E. Good (Eds.), The new handbook of psychology and counseling with men: A comprehensive guide to settings, problems, and treatment approaches (pp. 424–443). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Levant, R. F., Good, G. E., Cook, S. W., O'Neil, J. M., Smalley, K. B., Owen, K., & Richmond, K. (2006). The normative Male Alexithymia Scale: Measurement of a gender-linked syndrome. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 7(4), 212. Levant, R. F., Hall, R. J., Williams, C. M., & Hasan, N. T. (2009). Gender differences in alexithymia. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 10(3), 190–203. Levant, R. F., Richmond, K., Majors, R. G., Inclan, J. E., Rossello, J. M., Heesacker, M., et al. (2003). A multicultural investigation of masculinity ideology and alexithymia. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 4(2), 91–99. Linehan, M. (1993). Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder. New York: Guilford Press. Litz, B. T., Schlenger, W. E., Weathers, F. W., Caddell, J. M., Fairbank, J. A., & LaVange, L. M. (1997). Predictors of emotional numbing in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 10(4), 607–618. Lykins, E. L. B., & Baer, R. A. (2009). Psychological functioning in a sample of long-term practitioners of mindfulness meditation. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 23(3), 226–241. Manser, R., Cooper, M., & Trefusis, J. (2012). Beliefs about emotions as a metacognitive construct: Initial development of a self-report questionnaire measure and preliminary investigation in relation to emotion regulation. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 19(3), 235–246. Martínez Sánchez, F., Blanco Larrieux, M. L., Páez Rovira, D., & Costa Ball, D. (2013). Beliefs about the effects of social sharing of emotion in alexithymia. Psicothema, 25(2), 179–184. Marty, P., & de M’Uzan, M. (1963). La pensée opératoire. Revue Française de Psychanalyse, 27, 1345–1356. Mazloom, M., Yaghubi, H., & Mohammadkhani, S. (2016). Post-traumatic stress symptom, metacognition, emotional schema and emotion regulation: A structural equation model. Personality and Individual Differences, 88, 94–98. McCaslin, S. E., Metzler, T. J., Best, S. R., Liberman, A., Weiss, D. S., Fagan, J., et al. (2006). Alexithymia and PTSD Symptoms in urban police officers: Cross-sectional and prospective findings. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19(3), 361–373. McDougall, J. (1982). Alexithymia: A psychoanalytic viewpoint. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 38(1–4), 81–90. Melka, S. E., Lancaster, S. L., Bryant, A. R., Rodriguez, B. F., & Weston, R. (2011). An exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis of the Affective Control Scale in an undergraduate sample. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 33(4), 501–513. Mennin, D. S., Heimberg, R. G., Turk, C. L., & Fresco, D. M. (2005). Preliminary evidence for an emotion dysregulation model of generalized anxiety disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43(10), 1281–1310. Messina, A., Beadle, J. N., & Paradiso, S. (2014). Towards a classification of alexithymia: Primary, secondary and organic. Journal of Psychopathology, 20, 38–49. Minkowski, E. (1946). L’anesthesie affective. Annales Medico-Psychologiques, 104, 80–88. Müller, J., Bühner, M., Ziegler, M., & Şahin, L. (2008). Are alexithymia, ambivalence over emotional expression, and social insecurity overlapping constructs? Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 64(3), 319–325. Nemiah, J. C. (1977). Alexithymia. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 28(1–4), 199–206. O’Brien, C., Gaher, R. M., Pope, C., & Smiley, P. (2008). Difficulty identifying feelings predicts the persistence of trauma symptoms in a sample of veterans who experienced military sexual trauma. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 196(3), 252–255. O’Neil, J. M. (2015). New contextual paradigms for gender role conflict theory, research, and practice. In J. M. O’Neil (Ed.), Men’s gender role conflict: Psychological costs, consequences, and an agenda for change (pp. 41–77). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Ogrodniczuk, J. S., Piper, W. E., & Joyce, A. S. (2011). Effect of alexithymia on the process and outcome of psychotherapy: A programmatic review. Psychiatry Research, 190(1), 43–48. Paivio, S. C., & Pascual-Leone, A. (2010). Emotion-focused therapy for trauma treatment model. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Park, J., Yong, J., Jin, Y., Kim, S., Lee, S., Young, S., et al. (2015). The association between alexithymia and posttraumatic stress symptoms following multiple exposures to traumatic events in North Korean refugees. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 78(1), 77–81. Parker, J. D. A., Taylor, G. J., & Bagby, R. M. (1998). Alexithymia: Relationship with ego defense and coping styles. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 39(2), 91–98. Picardi, A., Fagnani, C., Gigantesco, A., Toccaceli, V., Lega, I., & Stazi, M. A. (2011). Genetic influences on alexithymia and their relationship with depressive symptoms. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 71, 256–263. Posse, M., Hallstrom, T., & Backenroth-Ohsako, G. (2004). Psychosocial predictors of alexithymia examined over a 12-month period in a non-patient female population. The European Journal of Psychiatry, 18(3), 133–141. Quinton, S., & Wagner, H. L. (2005). Alexithymia, ambivalence over emotional expression, and eating attitudes. Personality and Individual Differences, 38(5), 1163–1173. Raimy, V. (1975). Misunderstandings of the self: Cognitive psychotherapy and the misconception hypothesis. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Ralston, M. B. (2006). Imaginal confrontation versus evocative empathy in emotion-focused trauma therapy. Unpublished dissertation, University of Windsor, Ontario, Canada. Reeves, M., James, L. M., Pizzarello, S. M., & Taylor, J. E. (2010). Support for Linehan’s biosocial theory from a nonclinical sample. Journal of Personality Disorders, 24(3), 312–326. Ridings, L. E., & Lutz-Zois, C. J. (2014). Emotional dysregulation and Borderline Personality Disorder: Explaining the link between secondary psychopathy and alexithymia. Personality and Individual Differences, 57, 14–19. Rimes, K. A., & Chalder, T. (2010). The Beliefs about Emotions Scale: Validity, reliability and sensitivity to change. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 68(3), 285–292. Roemer, L., Litz, B. T., Orsillo, S. M., & Wagner, A. W. (2001). A preliminary investigation of the role of strategic withholding of emotions in PTSD. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14(1), 149–156. Rose, P., & Segrist, D. J. (2012). Difficulty identifying feelings, distress tolerance and compulsive buying: Analyzing the associations to inform therapeutic strategies. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 10(6), 927–935. Sanders, B., & Becker-Lausen, E. (1995). The measurement of psychological maltreatment: Early data on the child abuse and trauma scale. Child Abuse and Neglect, 19(3), 315–323. Sauer, S. E., & Baer, R. A. (2009). Relationships between thought suppression and symptoms of borderline personality disorder. Journal of Personality Disorders, 23(1), 48–61. Sauer, S. E., & Baer, R. A. (2010). Validation of measures of biosocial precursors to borderline personality disorder: Childhood emotional vulnerability and environmental invalidation. Assessment, 17(4), 454–466. Saur-Zavala, S., Boswell, J. F., Gallagher, M. W., Bentley, K. H., Ametaj, A., & Barlow, D. H. (2012). The role of negative affectivity and negative reactivity to emotions in predicting outcomes in the unified protocol for the transdiagnostic treatment of emotional disorders. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 50(9), 551–557. Sherrill, A., Renk, K., Sims, V. K., & Culp, A. (2011). Undergraduate students’ attributions of depicted adult–adolescent and adolescent–adolescent sexual interactions. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 20(2), 157–181. Sifneos, P. E. (1974). A reconsideration of psychodynamic mechanisms in psychosomatic symptom formation in view of recent clinical observations. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 24(2–3), 151–155. Sifneos, P. E. (1994). Affect deficit and alexithymia. New Trends in Experimental and Clinical Psychiatry, 10(4), 193–195. Silberstein, L. R., Tirch, D., Leahy, R. L., & McGinn, L. (2012). Mindfulness, psychological flexibility and emotional schemas. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 5(4), 406–419. Sippel, L. M., & Marshall, A. D. (2013). Posttraumatic stress disorder and fear of emotions: The role of attentional control. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26, 397–400. Söndergaard, H. P., & Theorell, T. (2004). Alexithymia, emotions and PTSD; findings from a longitudinal study of refugees. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 58(3), 185–191. Stewart, S. H., Zvolensky, M. J., & Eifert, G. H. (2002). The relations of anxiety sensitivity, experiential avoidance, and alexithymic coping to young adults’ motivations for drinking. Behavior Modification, 26(2), 274–296. Stingl, M., Bausch, S., Walter, B., Kagerer, S., Leichsenring, F., & Leweke, F. (2008). Effects of inpatient psychotherapy on the stability of alexithymia characteristics. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 65(2), 173–180. Sullivan, L., Camic, P. M., & Brown, J. S. L. (2015). Masculinity, alexithymia, and fear of intimacy as predictors of UK men’s attitudes towards seeking professional psychological help. British Journal of Health Psychology, 20(1), 194–211. Taylor, G. J., & Bagby, R. M. (2013). Psychoanalysis and empirical research: The example of alexithymia. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 61(1), 99–133. Taylor, G. J., Bagby, R. M., & Parker, J. D. A. (1997). Disorders of affect regulation: Alexithymia in medical and psychiatric illness. Cambridge: University Press. Taylor, G. J., Bagby, R. M., & Parker, J. D. A. (2003). The 20-Item Toronto Alexithymia Scale: IV. Reliability and factorial validity in different languages and cultures. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 55(3), 277–283. Taylor, G. J., Parker, J. D. A., Bagby, R. M., & Acklin, M. W. (1992). Alexithymia and somatic complaints in psychiatric out-patients. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 36(5), 417–424. Thomas, R., DiLillo, D., Walsh, K., & Polusny, M. A. (2011). Pathways from child sexual abuse to adult depression: The role of parental socialization of emotions and alexithymia. Psychology of Violence, 1(2), 121–135. Thorberg, F. A., Young, R. M., Sullivan, K. A., & Lyvers, M. (2011). Parental bonding and alexithymia: A meta-analysis. European Psychiatry, 26(3), 187–193. Tirch, D. D., Leahy, R. L., Silberstein, L. R., & Melwani, P. S. (2012). Emotional schemas, psychological flexibility, and anxiety: The role of flexible response patterns to anxious arousal. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 5(4), 308–391. Tolmunen, T., Lehto, S. M., Heliste, M., Kurl, S., & Kauhanen, J. (2010). Alexithymia is associated with increased cardiovascular mortality in middle-aged Finnish men. Psychosomatic Medicine, 72(2), 187–191. Treanor, M., Erisman, S. M., Salters-Pedneault, K., Roemer, L., & Orsillo, S. M. (2011). Acceptance-based behavioral therapy for GAD: Effects on outcomes from three theoretical models. Depression and Anxiety, 28(2), 127–136. Tull, M. T., Jakupcak, M., McFadden, M. E., & Roemer, L. (2007). The Role of negative affect intensity and the fear of emotions in posttraumatic stress symptom severity among victims of childhood interpersonal violence. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 195(7), 580–587. Tull, M. T., & Roemer, L. (2003). Alternative explanations of emotional numbing of posttraumatic stress disorder: An examination of hyperarousal and experiential avoidance. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 25(3), 147–154. Vanheule, S., Desmet, M., Maganck, R., & Bogaerts, S. (2007). Alexithymia and interpersonal problems. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 63, 109–117. Vazsonyi, A. T., Harris, C., Terveer, A. M., Pagava, K., Phagava, H., & Michaud, P. A. (2015). Parallel mediation effects by sleep on the parental warmth-problem behavior links: Evidence from national probability samples of Georgian and Swiss adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44(2), 331–345. Wells, A. (1995). Meta-cognition and worry: A cognitive model of generalized anxiety disorder. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 23, 301–320. Wells, A. (2011). Metacognitive therapy for anxiety and depression. New York: Guilford Press. Whittingham, K., Bodimeade, H. L., Lloyd, O., & Boyd, R. N. (2014). Everyday psychological functioning in children with unilateral cerebral palsy: Does executive functioning play a role? Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 56(6), 572–579. Wise, T. N., Mann, L. S., & Epstein, S. (1991). Ego defensive styles and alexithymia: A discriminant validation study. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 56(3), 141–145. Wong, Y. J., Pituch, K. A., & Rochlen, A. B. (2006). Men’s restrictive emotionality: An investigation of associations with other emotion-related constructs, anxiety, and underlying dimensions. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 7(2), 113–126. Yates, T. M., Gregor, M. A., & Haviland, M. G. (2012). Child maltreatment, alexithymia, and problematic internet use in young adulthood. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15(4), 219–225. Yehuda, R., Steiner, A., Kahana, B., Binder-Brynes, K., Southwick, S. M., Zemelman, S., et al. (1997). Alexithymia in Holocaust survivors with and without PTSD. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 10(1), 93–100. Yelsma, P., Hovestadt, A. J., Anderson, W. T., & Nilsson, J. E. (2000). Family of origin expressiveness: Measurement, meaning, and relationship to alexithymia. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 26(3), 353–363. Zeitlin, S. B., McNally, R. J., & Cassiday, K. L. (1993). Alexithymia in victims of sexual assault: An effect of repeated traumatization? American Journal of Psychiatry, 150(4), 661–663.