Effects of Acute Carbohydrate Supplementation on Endurance Performance
Tóm tắt
Research on the performance effects of acute carbohydrate supplementation is comprehensive. Here we present the first meta-analytic review of this research.
Methods: Eighty-eight randomized crossover studies in which carbohydrate supplements were consumed with or without protein before and/or during exercise provided 155 estimates for performance effects in time-to-exhaustion tests or in time trials with or without a preload. For the mixed-model metaanalysis, all effects were converted into percentage changes in mean power in a non-preloaded time trial and weighted using percentage standard errors derived from exact p-values (in a minority of studies) or from estimated errors of measurement (in all other studies). Publication bias was assessed with a plot of t-values for the random-effect solutions versus standard errors. Probabilistic inferences were derived with reference to thresholds for small, moderate and large effects on performance of 0.5, 1.5 and 2.7%.
Results: Publication bias was reduced by excluding studies with a standard error >1.25%. In the remaining 73 studies and 122 estimates, the meta-analysed performance effects of carbohydrate supplements ranged from clear large improvements of ~6% to clear moderate impairments of ~2%. The best supplement inferred from the analysis consisted of a ~3–10% carbohydrate plus-protein drink providing ~0.7 g/kg/h glucose polymers, ~0.2 g/kg/h fructose and ~0.2 g/kg/h protein. Substantial increases in the benefit of a supplement were probably small with an additional 9-hour fast and with the inclusion of ~0.2 g/kg/h of protein, probably small to moderate with ingesting the first bolus not at the start of exercise but 14 hours before exercise, and possibly small with increasing the frequency of ingestion by three boluses per hour. Substantial reductions in the benefit of a supplement were possibly moderate with a supplement providing >0.25 g/kg/h fructose, and possibly small with an increase in ambient temperature of 10°C. The effect in subjects with maximal oxygen consumption higher by 10mL/kg/min was probably trivial, and the effects of exercise duration were dependent on the concentration of carbohydrate plus protein in the supplement. The effect of including salt was unexpectedly trivial, and the effect of gender was unclear.
Conclusions: Carbohydrate supplements with an appropriate composition and administration regimen can have large benefits on endurance performance. More research and better reporting are required to investigate the moderating effects of gender and salt.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Bosch AN. Carbohydrate ingestion during exercise: an aid to endurance performance [review]. Int Sportmed J 2007; 8: 24–30
Jeukendrup AE. Carbohydrate feeding during exercise. Eur J Sport Sci 2008; 8: 77–86
Foster C, Costill DL, Costill DL. Effects of preexercise feedings on endurance performance. Med Sci Sports 1979; 11: 1–5
Ivy JL, Costill DL, Fink WJ, et al. Influence of caffeine and carbohydrate feedings on endurance performance. Med Sci Sports 1979; 11: 6–11
Felig P, Cherif A, Minagawa A, et al. Hypoglycemia during prolonged exercise in normal men. N Engl J Med 1982; 306: 895–900
Coyle EF, Hagberg JM, Hurley BF, et al. Carbohydrate feeding during prolonged strenuous exercise can delay fatigue. J Appl Physiol 1983; 55: 230–5
Bjorkman O. Influence of glucose and fructose ingestion on the capacity for long-term exercise in well-trained men. Clin Physiol 1984; 4: 483–94
Decombaz J, Sartori D, Arnaud MJ, et al. Oxidation and metabolic effects of fructose or glucose ingested before exercise. Int J Sports Med 1985; 6: 282–6
Coyle EF, Coggan AR, Hemmert MK, et al. Muscle glycogen utilization during prolonged strenuous exercise when fed carbohydrate. J Appl Physiol 1986; 61: 165–72
Gleeson M, Maughan RJ, Greenhaff PL. Comparison of the effects of pre-exercise feeding of glucose, glycerol and placebo on endurance and fuel homeostasis in man. Eur J Appl Physiol 1986; 55: 645–53
Flynn MG, Costill DL, Hawley JA, et al. Influence of selected carbohydrate drinks on cycling performance and glycogen use. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1987; 19: 37–40
Hargreaves M, Costill DL, Fink WJ, et al. Effect of preexercise carbohydrate feedings on endurance cycling performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1987; 19: 33–6
Murray R, Eddy DE, Murray TW, et al. The effect of fluid and carbohydrate feedings during intermittent cycling exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1987; 19: 597–604
Neufer PD, Costill DL, Flynn MG, et al. Improvements in exercise performance: effects of carbohydrate feedings and diet. J Appl Physiol 1987; 62: 983–8
Sasaki H, Maeda J, Usui S, et al. Effect of sucrose and caffeine ingestion on performance of prolonged strenuous running. Int J Sports Med 1987; 8: 261–5
Davis JM, Burgess WA, Slentz CA, et al. Effects of ingesting 6% and 12% glucose/electrolyte beverages during prolonged intermittent cycling in the heat. Eur J Appl Physiol 1988; 57: 563–9
Davis JM, Lamb DR, Pate RR, et al. Carbohydrateelectrolyte drinks: effects on endurance cycling in the heat. Am J Clin Nutr 1988; 48: 1023–30
Mitchell JB, Costill DL, Houmard JA, et al. Effects of carbohydrate ingestion on gastric emptying and exercise performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1988; 20: 110–5
Coggan AR, Coyle EF. Metabolism and performance following carbohydrate ingestion late in exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1989; 21: 59–65
Maughan RJ, Fenn CE, Leiper JB. Effects of fluid, electrolyte and substrate ingestion on endurance capacity. Eur J Appl Physiol 1989; 58: 481–6
Mitchell JB, Costill DL, Houmard JA, et al. Influence of carbohydrate dosage on exercise performance and glycogen metabolism. J Appl Physiol 1989; 67: 1843–9
Murray R, Seifert JG, Eddy DE, et al. Carbohydrate feeding and exercise: effect of beverage carbohydrate content. Eur J Appl Physiol 1989; 59: 152–8
Murray R, Paul GL, Seifert JG, et al. The effects of glucose, fructose, and sucrose ingestion during exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1989; 21: 275–82
Sherman WM, Brodowicz G, Wright DA, et al. Effects of 4 h preexercise carbohydrate feedings on cycling performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1989; 21: 598–604
Powers SK, Lawler J, Dodd S, et al. Fluid replacement drinks during high intensity exercise effects on minimizing exercise-induced disturbances in homeostasis. Eur J Appl Physiol 1990; 60: 54–60
Williams C, Nute MG, Broadbank L, et al. Influence of fluid intake on endurance running performance. Eur J Appl Physiol 1990; 60: 112–9
Murray R, Paul GL, Seifert JG, et al. Responses to varying rates of carbohydrate ingestion during exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1991; 23: 713–8
Sherman WM, Peden MC, Wright DA. Carbohydrate feedings 1 h before exercise improves cycling performance. Am J Clin Nutr 1991; 54: 866–70
Thomas DE, Brotherhood JR, Brand JC. Carbohydrate feeding before exercise: effect of glycemic index. Int J Sports Med 1991; 12: 180–6
Wright DA, Sherman WM, Dernbach AR. Carbohydrate feedings before, during, or in combination improve cycling endurance performance. J Appl Physiol 1991; 71: 1082–8
Millard-Stafford ML, Sparling PB, Rosskopf LB, et al. Carbohydrate-electrolyte replacement improves distance running performance in the heat. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1992; 24: 934–40
Wilber RL, Moffatt RJ. Influence of carbohydrate ingestion on blood glucose and performance in runners. Int J Sport Nutr 1992; 2: 317–27
Zachwieja JJ, Costill DL, Beard GC, et al. The effects of a carbonated carbohydrate drink on gastric emptying, gastrointestinal distress, and exercise performance. Int J Sport Nutr 1992; 2: 239–50
Cole KJ, Grandjean PW, Sobszak RJ, et al. Effect of carbohydrate composition on fluid balance, gastric emptying, and exercise performance. Int J Sport Nutr 1993; 3: 408–17
Nishibata I, Sadamoto T, Mutoh Y, et al. Glucose ingestion before and during exercise does not enhance performance of daily repeated endurance exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 1993; 66: 65–9
Tsintzas K, Liu R, Williams C, et al. The effect of carbohydrate ingestion on performance during a 30-km race. Int J Sport Nutr 1993; 3: 127–39
Widrick JJ, Costill DL, Costill DL, et al. Carbohydrate feedings and exercise performance: effect of initial muscle glycogen concentration. J Appl Physiol 1993; 74: 2998–3005
Bacharach DW, Von Duvillard SP, Rundell KW, et al. Carbohydrate drinks and cycling performance. J Sports Med Phys Fit 1994; 34: 161–8
Chryssanthopoulos C, Hennessy LC, Williams C. The influence of pre-exercise glucose ingestion on endurance running capacity. Br J Sports Med 1994; 28: 105–9
Anantaraman R, Carmines AA, Gaesser GA, et al. Effects of carbohydrate supplementation on performance during 1 hour of high-intensity exercise. Int J Sports Med 1995; 16: 461–5
Ball TC, Headley SA, Vanderburgh PM, et al. Periodic carbohydrate replacement during 50 min of high-intensity cycling improves subsequent sprint performance. Int J Sport Nutr 1995; 5: 151–8
Below PR, Mora-Rodriguez R, Gonzalez-Alonso J, et al. Fluid and carbohydrate ingestion independently improve performance during 1 h of intense exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1995; 27: 200–10
El-Sayed MS, Rattu AJM, Roberts I. Effects of carbohydrate feeding before and during prolonged exercise on subsequent maximal exercise performance capacity. Int J Sport Nutr 1995; 5: 215–24
Kang J, Robertson RJ, Denys BG, et al. Effect of carbohydrate ingestion subsequent to carbohydrate supercompensation on endurance performance. Int J Sport Nutr 1995; 5: 329–43
Tsintzas OK, Williams C, Singh R, et al. Influence of carbohydrate-electrolyte drinks on marathon running performance. Eur J Appl Physiol 1995; 70: 154–60
Madsen K, Maclean DA, Kiens B, et al. Effects of glucose, glucose plus branched-chain amino acids, or placebo on bike performance over 100 km. J Appl Physiol 1996; 81: 2644–50
Maughan RJ, Bethell LR, Leiper JB. Effects of ingested fluids on exercise capacity and on cardiovascular and metabolic responses to prolonged exercise in man. Exp Physiol 1996; 81: 847–59
McConell G, Kloot K, Hargreaves M. Effect of timing of carbohydrate ingestion on endurance exercise performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1996; 28: 1300–4
Tsintzas OK, Williams C, Wilson W, et al. Influence of carbohydrate supplementation early in exercise on endurance running capacity. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1996; 28: 1373–9
Tsintzas OK, Williams C, Boobis L, et al. Carbohydrate ingestion and single muscle fiber glycogen metabolism during prolonged running in men. J Appl Physiol 1996; 81: 801–9
El-Sayed MS, Balmer J, Rattu AJM. Carbohydrate ingestion improves endurance performance during a 1 h simulated cycling time trial. J Sports Sci 1997; 15: 223–30
Jeukendrup A, Brouns F, Wagenmakers AJM, et al. Carbohydrate-electrolyte feedings improve 1 h time trial cycling performance. Int J Sports Med 1997; 18: 125–9
Millard-Stafford M, Rosskopf LB, Snow TK, et al. Water versus carbohydrate-electrolyte ingestion before and during a 15-km run in the heat. Int J Sport Nutr 1997; 7: 26–38
Jeukendrup AE, Thielen JJ, Wagenmakers AJ, et al. Effect of medium-chain triacylglycerol and carbohydrate ingestion during exercise on substrate utilization and subsequent cycling performance. Am J Clin Nutr 1998; 67: 397–404
Kovacs EMR, Stegen J, Brouns F. Effect of caffeinated drinks on substrate metabolism, caffeine excretion, and performance. J Appl Physiol 1998; 85: 709–15
Palmer GS, Clancy MC, Hawley JA, et al. Carbohydrate ingestion immediately before exercise does not improve 20 km time trial performance in well trained cyclists. Int J Sports Med 1998; 19: 415–8
Sugiura K, Kobayashi K. Effect of carbohydrate ingestion on sprint performance following continuous and intermittent exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1998; 30: 1624–30
Jarvis AT, Felix SD, Sims S, et al. Carbohydrate supplementation fails to improve the sprint performance of female cyclists. J Exerc Physiol 1999; 1: 1424–40
McConell G, Snow RJ, Proietto J, et al. Muscle metabolism during prolonged exercise in humans: influence of carbohydrate availability. J Appl Physiol 1999; 87: 1083–6
Angus DJ, Hargreaves M, Dancey J, et al. Effect of carbohydrate or carbohydrate plus medium-chain triglyceride ingestion on cycling time trial performance. J Appl Physiol 2000; 88: 113–9
Febbraio MA, Chiu A, Angus DJ, et al. Effects of carbohydrate ingestion before and during exercise on glucose kinetics and performance. J Appl Physiol 2000; 89: 2220–6
McConell GK, Canny BJ, Daddo MC, et al. Effect of carbohydrate ingestion on glucose kinetics and muscle metabolism during intense endurance exercise. J Appl Physiol 2000; 89: 1690–8
Mitchell JB, Braun WA, Pizza FX, et al. Pre-exercise carbohydrate and fluid ingestion: influence of glycemic response on 10-km treadmill running performance in the heat. J Sports Med Phys Fit 2000; 40: 41–50
Bishop NC, Blannin AK, Walsh NP, et al. Carbohydrate beverage ingestion and neutrophil degranulation responses following cycling to fatigue at 75% VO2max. Int J Sports Med 2001; 22: 226–31
Chinevere TD, Sawyer RD, Creer AR, et al. Effects of L-tyrosine and carbohydrate ingestion on endurance exercise performance. J Appl Physiol 2002; 93: 1590–7
Chryssanthopoulos C, Williams C, Nowitz A, et al. The effect of a high carbohydrate meal on endurance running capacity. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2002; 12: 157–71
Carter J, Jeukendrup AE, Mundel T, et al. Carbohydrate supplementation improves moderate and high-intensity exercise in the heat. Pflugers Arch 2003; 446: 211–9
Jentjens R, Cale C, Gutch C, et al. Effects of pre-exercise ingestion of differing amounts of carbohydrate on subsequent metabolism and cycling performance. Eur J Appl Physiol 2003; 88: 444–52
Desbrow B, Anderson S, Barrett J, et al. Carbohydrateelectrolyte feedings and 1 h time trial cycling performance. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2004; 14: 541–9
Nikolopoulos V, Arkinstall MJ, Hawley JA. Reduced neuromuscular activity with carbohydrate ingestion during constant load cycling. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2004; 14: 161–70
Saunders MJ, Kane MD, Todd M. Effects of a carbohydrateprotein beverage on cycling endurance and muscle damage. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2004; 36: 1233–8
Burke LM, Wood C, Pyne DB, et al. Effect of carbohydrate intake on half-marathon performance of well-trained runners. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2005; 15: 573–89
Van Nieuwenhoven MA, Brouns F, Kovacs EMR. The effect of two sports drinks and water on GI complaints and performance during an 18-km run. Int J Sports Med 2005; 26: 281–5
Gusbakti R. Ingestion of carbohydrate-electrolyte beverage improves exercise performance. Biomed Res 2006; 17: 183–7
Romano-Ely BC, Todd M, Saunders MJ, et al. Effect of an isocaloric carbohydrate-protein-antioxidant drink on cycling performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2006; 38: 1608–16
Van Essen M, Gibala MJ. Failure of protein to improve time trial performance when added to a sports drink. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2006; 38: 1476–83
Saunders MJ, Luden ND, Herrick JE. Consumption of an oral carbohydrate-protein gel improves cycling endurance and prevents postexercise muscle damage. J Strength Cond Res 2007; 21: 678–84
Abbiss CR, Peiffer JJ, Peake JM, et al. Effect of carbohydrate ingestion and ambient temperature on muscle fatigue development in endurance-trained male cyclists. J Appl Physiol 2008; 104: 1021–8
Campbell C, Prince D, Braun M, et al. Carbohydratesupplement form and exercise performance. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2008; 18: 179–90
Currell K, Jeukendrup AE. Superior endurance performance with ingestion of multiple transportable carbohydrates. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2008; 40: 275–81
Hulston CJ, Jeukendrup AE. Substrate metabolism and exercise performance with caffeine and carbohydrate intake. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2008; 40: 2096–104
Jeukendrup AE, Hopkins S, Aragón-Vargas LF, et al. No effect of carbohydrate feeding on 16 km cycling time trial performance. Eur J Appl Physiol 2008; 104: 831–7
Osterberg KL, Zachwieja JJ, Smith JW. Carbohydrate and carbohydrate+protein for cycling time-trial performance. J Sports Sci 2008; 26: 227–33
Peake J, Peiffer JJ, Abbiss CR, et al. Carbohydrate gel ingestion and immunoendocrine responses to cycling in temperate and hot conditions. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2008; 18: 229–46
Valentine RJ, Saunders MJ, Todd MK, et al. Influence of carbohydrate-protein beverage on cycling endurance and indices of muscle disruption. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2008; 18: 363–78
Breen L, Tipton KD, Jeukendrup AE. No effect of carbohydrate-protein on cycling performance and indices of recovery. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2010; 42: 1140–8
Hulston CJ, Jeukendrup AE. No placebo effect from carbohydrate intake during prolonged exercise. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2009; 19: 275–84
Lacerda ACR, Alecrim P, Damasceno WC, et al. Carbohydrate ingestion during exercise does not delay the onset of fatigue during submaximal cycle exercise. J Strength Cond Res 2009; 23: 1276–81
Robson-Ansley P, Barwood M, Eglin C, et al. The effect of carbohydrate ingestion on the interleukin-6 response to a 90-minute run time trial. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2009; 4: 186–94
Saunders MJ, Moore RW, Kies AK, et al. Carbohydrate and protein hydrolysate coingestions improvement of late-exercise time-trial performance. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2009; 19: 136–49
Hopkins WG, Schabort EJ, Hawley JA. Reliability of power in physical performance tests. Sports Med 2001; 31: 211–34
Hinckson EA, Hopkins WG. Reliability of time to exhaustion analyzed with critical-power and log-log modeling. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2005; 37: 696–701
Leger L, Mercier D. Gross energy cost of horizontal treadmill and track running. Sports Med 1984; 1: 270–7
Billat LV, Koralsztein JP. Significance of the velocity at VO2max and time to exhaustion at this velocity. Sports Med 1996; 22: 90–108
Easterbrook PJ, Gopalan R, Berlin JA, et al. Publication bias in clinical research. Lancet 1991; 337: 867–72
Hopkins WG, Marshall SW, Batterham AM, et al. Progressive statistics for studies in sports medicine and exercise science. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2009; 41: 3–12
Hopkins WG. Competitive performance of elite track-andfield athletes: variability and smallest worthwhile enhancements. Sportscience 2005; 9: 17–20
Paton CD, Hopkins WG. Variation in performance of elite cyclists from race to race. Eur J Sport Sci 2006; 6: 25–31
Jeukendrup AE, Jentjens R. Oxidation of carbohydrate feedings during prolonged exercise: current thoughts, guidelines and directions for future research. Sports Med 2000; 29: 407–24
Shi X, Horn MK, Osterberg KL, et al. Gastrointestinal discomfort during intermittent high-intensity exercise: effect of carbohydrate-electrolyte beverage. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2004; 14: 673–83
Massicotte D, Peronnet F, Brisson G, et al. Oxidation of a glucose polymer during exercise: comparison with glucose and fructose. J Appl Physiol 1989; 66: 179–83
Rowlands DS, Thorburn MS, Thorp RM, et al. Effect of graded fructose coingestion with maltodextrin on exogenous 14C-fructose and 13C-glucose oxidation efficiency and high-intensity cycling performance. J Appl Physiol 2008; 104: 1709–19
O’Brien W, Rowlands D. Fructose-maltodextrin ratio in a carbohydrate-electrolyte solution differentially affects exogenous carbohydrate oxidation rate, gut comfort and performance. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2011; 300: G181–9
Blomstrand E. A role for branched-chain amino acids in reducing central fatigue. J Nutr 2006; 136: 544S–7S
Hunt JN, Stubbs DF. The Vol. and energy content of meals as determinants of gastric emptying. J Physiol 1975; 245: 209–25
Rehrer NJ. The maintenance of fluid balance during exercise. Int J Sports Med 1994; 15: 122–5
Rehrer NJ, Beckers EJ, Brouns F, et al. Effects of electrolytes in carbohydrate beverages on gastric emptying and secretion. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1993; 25: 42–51
Morris JG, Nevill ME, Thompson D, et al. The influence of a 6.5% carbohydrate-electrolyte solution on performance of prolonged intermittent high-intensity running at 30 degrees C. J Sports Sci 2003; 21: 371–81
Jentjens R, Wagenmakers AJM, Jeukendrup AE. Heat stress increases muscle glycogen use but reduces the oxidation of ingested carbohydrates during exercise. J Appl Physiol 2002; 92: 1562–72
Burke LM, Collier GR, Davis PG, et al. Muscle glycogen storage after prolonged exercise: effect of the frequency of carbohydrate feedings. Am J Clin Nutr 1996; 64: 115–9
Chambers ES, Bridge MW, Jones DA. Carbohydrate sensing in the human mouth: effects on exercise performance and brain activity. J Physiol 2009; 587: 1779–94
Wong SH, Chan OW, Chen YJ, et al. Effect of preexercise glycemic-index meal on running when CHO-electrolyte solution is consumed during exercise. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2009; 19: 222–42
Hopkins WG. Research designs: choosing and fine-tuning a design for your study. Sportscience 2008; 12: 12–21
Rowlands DS, Thorp RM, Rossler K, et al. Effect of proteinrich feeding on recovery following intense exercise. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2007; 17: 521–43